A COGNITIVE-SYSTEMIC RECONSTRUCTION OF MASLOW'S THEORY OF SELF-ACTUALIZATION

A COGNITIVE-SYSTEMIC RECONSTRUCTION OF
MASLOW'S THEORY OF SELF-ACTUALIZATION
by Francis Heylighen1
PESP, Free University of Brussels, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
Maslow's need hierarchy and model of the self-actualizing per-
sonality are reviewed and criticized. The definition of self-actualiza-
tion is found to be confusing, and the gratification of all needs is con-
cluded to be insufficient to explain self-actualization. Therefore the
theory is reconstructed on the basis of a second-order, cognitive-sys-
temic framework. A hierarchy of basic needs is derived from the ur-
gency of perturbations which an autonomous system must compensate
in order to maintain its identity. It comprises the needs for homeosta-
sis, safety, protection, feedback and exploration. Self-actualization is
redefined as the perceived competence to satisfy these basic needs in
due time. This competence has three components: material, cognitive
and subjective. Material and/or cognitive incompetence during child-
hood create subjective incompetence, which in turn inhibits the further
development of cognitive competence, and thus of self-actualization.
KEY WORDS: humanistic psychology, self-actualization, competence, cognition, autonomous systems, human
motivation, problem-solving.
TYPE OF ARTICLE: nonquantitative theory
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS: none
~
INTRODUCTION
enced by behaviorism, which tends to re-
duce human behavior to statistical correla-
NE OF THE MAIN VALUES driving sys-
tions between different kinds of stimuli,
tems research is to provide con-
responses and personality traits. Instead of
cepts and methods for stimulating
merely modelling normal behavior or of
O learning, growth and development, curing clear dysfunctions, a humanistic
psychologist tries to help people to develop
as well in individual persons as in society,
in a better way, thus making them more
thus enhancing well-being and the overall
competent, more aware, more happy, in the
quality of life. The same positive aim char-
hope of reaching some state of “optimal”
acterizes so-called humanistic psychology
mental health [12].
[9], which defines itself as a "third force",
Probably the best known proponent of
in contrast with clinical psychology, influ-
this approach is Abraham Maslow. What
enced by Freudian psycho-analysis, which
distinguishes his work from that of other
studies mental illness, i.e. the negative side
"humanists", such as Carl Rogers or Erich
of human behavior, and traditional aca-
Fromm [12], is that he proposes a model of
demic, experimental psychology, influ-
how a happy, healthy, well-functioning
39
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HEYLIGHEN
person behaves, which is based on concrete
are here replaced by concepts such as self-
observations of real people, rather than on
organization, autonomy, cognition, self-
formulating ideal requirements. Moreover
awareness, conversation, etc., which are
Maslow proposes a simple, and intuitively
clearly related to humanistic concepts
appealing theory of motivation [8], which
surrounding the central idea of self-actual-
explains where such a "self-actualizing"
ization. However, most "second-order"
personality comes from. In parallel with
theories remain very abstract, lacking the
systems theory, Maslow reacts against too
simplicity, concreteness and intuitive ap-
much reductionism in psychological mod-
peal of Maslow's descriptions.
elling, and proposes an alternative holistic
What I wish to do in this paper is to re-
approach of personality research [8].
view Maslow's theory and the criticisms
However, in academic psychology
raised against it, and try to reconstruct its
Maslow has been criticized for his lack of
main concepts on the basis of a general
scientificity. In recent years, Maslow's
"second-order" cognitive-systemic frame-
ideas have been taken up by the so-called
work, in order to make them more general,
"transpersonal" psychologists [9], who
more precise and more coherent.
study altered, "ego-transcending" states of
consciousness, inspired by mystical tradi-
A REVIEW OF MASLOW'S THEORY
tions, Eastern philosophies and
psychedelic experiences. Although the
Maslow's theory of personality [8, 9] is
transpersonalists claim to carry out scien-
based on: 1) a theory of human motivation,
tific investigations, it is in practice often
characterized by a hierarchy of needs; 2) a
difficult to draw a boundary between their
description of a particular type of maxi-
research and approaches characterized by
mally healthy personality, called "self-ac-
irrationality and mysticism
tualizing", which is supposed to emerge
The general problem is that if holism as
when all these needs are satisfied.
a reaction to reductionism is understood in
a too simple-minded way, then any type of
Theory of motivation
scientific analysis, of precise, formal mod-
According to Maslow human behavior is
elling becomes meaningless. The main ad-
motivated by a set of basic needs. Which
vantage of the systems approach as a sci-
needs are most active in driving behavior
entific method is that it allows the integra-
depends on two principles: (1) a need
tion holistic and reductionistic principles,
which is satisfied is no longer active: the
leading to models where both "the whole is
higher the satisfaction, the less the activity
more than the sum of the parts" and "you
(the exception to this rule is the need for
must understand the behavior of the parts
self-actualization, see further); (2) needs
in order to understand the emergence of
can be ordered in a hierarchy, such that
the whole" applies. Hence the conceptual
from all the non-satisfied needs, the one
framework of systems science appears par-
which is lowest in the hierarchy will be the
ticularly well-suited for reformulating
most active. A lower need is more "urgent"
holistic theories, such as Maslow's, in a
in the sense that it must be satisfied before
more precise, more explicit, more scien-
a higher need can take over control.
tific way.
The lowest level of needs may be called
That the time is ripe for integrating hu-
physiological needs. These are needs of the
manistic and systemic approaches is also
body as a physiological system which tries
shown by the recent emergence of a "sec-
to maintain homeostasis. They consist of
ond" or "non-classical" systems science,
the need to breath air, hunger, thirst,
exemplified by the work of "second-order"
avoidance of extreme heat and cold, etc.
cyberneticists such as Maturana [10], Pask
These needs are such that if they are not
and de Zeeuw [1]. Mechanistic concepts
satisfied the organism dies. If the threat of
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A COGNITIVE-SYSTEMIC RECONSTRUCTION: MASLOW’S THEORY
41
dying because of perturbation of the physi-
velopment of remaining potentialities. If
ological equilibrium has vanished, the or-
you eat food, your desire for it becomes
ganism can direct its attention to more in-
less and less, in accordance with principle
direct threats, such as the danger of being
(1). However, if you develop your capaci-
caught by a predator, and try to avoid
ties, you want to develop them more and
them. This corresponds to the second need
more.
level: the need for safety. Once safety and
physiological needs are met, higher, more
Definition of self-actualization
typically "human" needs come to the fore-
Self-actualization is reached when all
ground, in the first place the need for love
needs are fulfilled, in particular the highest
and belonging. This is the basic social or
need. Because of the positive feedback,
affiliation motive, which drives people to
self-actualization is not a fixed state, but a
seek contact with others and to build satis-
process of development which does not
fying relations with them. Satisfaction of
end. The word derives from the idea that
belongingness needs triggers the emer-
each individual has a lot of hidden poten-
gence of the esteem need. In this stage of
tialities: talents or competences he or she
need gratification, persons also want to be
could develop, but which have as yet not
esteemed, by the people they are in contact
come to the surface. Self-actualization
with, as well as by themselves: they want
signifies that these potentialities of the self
to know that they are capable of achieve-
are made actual, are actualized in a con-
ment and success.
tinuing process of unfolding.
When all these needs are satisfied, we
According to Maslow, self-actualization
are left with the last one, the highest need,
corresponds to ultimate psychological
the need for self-actualization. This need is
health. Health is more than the absence of
fundamentally different from the previous
disease. On the psychological level, dis-
ones, in the sense that all the previous ones
eases correspond to neuroses due to the
can be conceived as drives towards the re-
frustration of one of the basic needs. For
duction of a deficiency. Such a deficiency
example, a person whose safety need has
means that there is a discrepancy between
not been adequately fulfilled may develop
the actual state of the individual, and some
paranoiac tendencies, and believe that ev-
fixed optimal or equilibrium state, charac-
erybody and everything is threatening him.
terized by adequate values of the basic
An interesting case is the situation
variables, as well physiological variables
where all the lower level needs have been
such as temperature, level of sugar in the
satisfied, but the highest need, self-actual-
blood, etc., as psychological ones such as
ization, has not. In that case you have a
feeling of safety, of belongingness, of es-
person who apparently has everything to
teem. The control which deficiency needs
be happy: a comfortable and safe environ-
exert over the individual's behavior is im-
ment, a loving family, friendship and re-
plemented as a negative feedback loop,
spect from peers, a sense of personal
which diminishes deviations from the goal
achievement... Yet the individual will not
state.
be really happy, because he has no longer a
Self-actualization, on the other hand,
goal to live for, he has achieved everything
may be called a growth need, in the sense
he wanted. This will result in feelings of
that deviations from the previously reached
boredom and meaninglessness, which
equilibrium state are not reduced, but en-
might even lead to suicide, unless the per-
hanced, made to grow, in a deviation-am-
son becomes aware that there is more to
plifying positive feedback loop. The devi-
life than reducing deficiencies, that is to
ations to be amplified are changes which
say unless he becomes aware of his need
can be interpreted as improvements in
for self-actualization. Though one may
some way of the overall personality, as de-
continue to live in a more or less stable
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HEYLIGHEN
manner, trying to satisfy the deficiency
the presence of positive signs of psycho-
needs without developing acute problems
logical health or well-being, the criteria for
or neuroses, he will not be really healthy
which were derived from previous obser-
unless he succeeds in satisfying his self-ac-
vations. To Maslow's amazement these
tualization need, thus liberating his most
highly disparate personalities appeared to
profound capacities.
have many non-trivial characteristics in
This definition of self-actualization de-
common, which together could be taken to
rives from Maslow's motivation theory.
define a new personality type. We will
However, Maslow has also undertaken an
now review these basic character traits, not
empirical observation of existing healthy
in the somewhat arbitrary seeming order in
personalities, more or less independently
which Maslow lists them, but building up
of the theory. Though he has tried to ex-
from the perception, to the behavior, and to
plain his empirical results by means of the
the social relations, concluding with what
theory, the observations are more detailed
makes these personalities so unique.
than what the theory can predict, and as we
will see further they sometimes even seem
Perception and experience
to contradict the theory. Though he uses
Perhaps the most striking feature of self-
the same word, "self-actualizing", to label
actualizing persons is their openness to ex-
the personality type coming out of his ob-
perience (see also [21]): they are eager to
servations, and the one coming out of his
undergo new experiences, learn new ideas
theory, it is not obvious that it describes the
and skills, try out new things. This also
same phenomenon. Therefore it is impor-
applies if the new observations do no fit
tant to study his observations in detail, and
into their existing schemata or contradict
to try to correlate them with theoretical ex-
their previous opinions. The result is that
planations.
in general they have what Maslow calls an
I find it quite dangerous to summarize
accurate perception of reality: in contrast
the observations, and I would propose to
to ordinary people they do not tend to
read the original text [8] (and not [9],
deny, repress or deform perceptions in or-
which was revised after Maslow's death,
der to make them fit their prejudices, a
and where several remarks—among other
tendency which is well-documented in
things about love—were deleted), rather
traditional psychology. There is also no
than simply take over one of the many ex-
contradiction between what they experi-
isting reviews such as the ones proposed in
ence or feel on a intuitive level, and what
[3, 11, 12], or in this paper. In my own ex-
they think on a conscious, rational level. A
perience, summaries by other authors do
general reason for this openness may be
not carry the same intuitive feeling of "this
that self-actualizers are attracted towards
is it!" as the original, perhaps in part be-
the unknown, rather than afraid of it like
cause they lack the many concrete exam-
most people.
ples and illustrations of self-actualizing
Together with this openness to new
behavior which Maslow proposes. Yet I
stimuli, there is a tendency to experience
will try to make a selection of the (at least
old, well-known stimuli in a new way,
for me) most important features.
what Maslow calls freshness of apprecia-
Maslow's study was carried out by an
tion. A self-actualizer may walk for the
analysis of the biographies of historical
thousandth time through the same street,
and public figures (such as Lincoln,
yet suddenly experience beauty and ex-
Spinoza, Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, etc.)
citement as if he or she saw it for the first
and by observation and interviewing of a
time. Such sense of beauty, wonder or re-
few contemporaries, who were rigourously
vivification is usually triggered by the
selected on the basis of absence of any
same type of objects or situations; depend-
signs of neurotic behavior, together with
ing upon the individual, these may be: na-
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A COGNITIVE-SYSTEMIC RECONSTRUCTION: MASLOW’S THEORY
43
ture, children, in certain cases sex or mu-
unbiased perception. They will not tend to
sic. Sometimes these spontaneous feelings
continuously vacillate or hesitate between
of awe and wonder become so intense, that
alternatives, asking the question "Am I
they may be called mystical or peak expe-
making the right decision?", because they
riences.
are confident about themselves, and their
capacity to solve problems. However, in
Attitude towards problems
situations of uncertainty they will postpone
The behavior of self-actualizers is gener-
a decision rather than make a premature
ally characterized by spontaneity or natu-
one, without feeling unhappy because of
ralness. They do not tend to wear masks or
the remaining ambiguity.
play roles, or feel inhibited or restricted in
In general they will focus on a problem
their thoughts, feelings and actions. They
or task outside themselves, rather than con-
are not afraid that what they are doing
tinuously question their own motives. This
might be wrong or that other people might
task may become a general "mission" to
think so. This spontaneity is also expressed
which they have devoted their life.
by their general creativity, which is not of
Accomplishing this task is what they like
the specialized, "Mozart" type, where
most, and they do not tend to separate
someone may create outstanding things in
work from fun or vacation.
one restricted area (e.g. music), but behave
Following the old dictum, we might
in a quite inhibited and immature way in
summarize their attitude towards problems
other areas. Self-actualizing creativity
as follows: they have the patience to en-
consists rather of a general playful attitude
dure the things that cannot be changed, the
towards problem-solving and self-expres-
courage to change the things that can be
sion which assumes that the conventional
changed, and the wisdom to distinguish the
way to do it is not necessarily the best way.
ones from the others.
This applies as well in the intellectual do-
mains of art, science and philosophy, as in
Social interactions
everyday tasks such as decorating the
Their relations with other people, society
house.
and culture are characterized first of all by
This lack of inhibition or tension may
their autonomy. They do not really need
be understood by their general attitude of
other people, and they make their decisions
acceptance towards nature, people and
for themselves, without having to rely on
themselves: they do not feel unhappy, anx-
the opinions of others, or on the rules, con-
ious, ashamed or guilty because of appar-
ventions and values imposed by society.
ent constraints or shortcomings they can-
They like solitude and detachment, and
not change, such as the weather, physiolog-
have a need for privacy and independence.
ical processes (e.g. urination, pregnancy,
Their world view is generally independent
menstruation, etc.), or old age. They will
of the particular culture or society in which
only feel bad about discrepancies between
they live, and they pay little attention to
what is, and what might be or ought to be.
the social conventions, though they will
Their intrinsic stability allows them to
superficially respect them if transgressing
maintain a relative serenity in situations of
the rules would bring about needless con-
deprivation, failure or disaster.
flicts.
When confronted with problems, self-
On the other hand, self-actualizers have
actualizers have little difficulty in making
a general feeling of empathy and kinship
decisions, because they know how to dis-
towards humanity as a whole. They tend to
tinguish between what is good and what is
be friendly towards everybody they meet,
bad, and between means and ends, that is
especially towards children. They are
to say they have a well-developed system
willing to listen to, and especially learn
of personal values, which is aided by their
from, people of any class, race, age, reli-
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HEYLIGHEN
gion or ideology, without being inhibited
behavior and values of the majority, we
by prejudices (Maslow calls this a demo-
may expect that self-actualizers, which
cratic character structure).
form a very small minority (Maslow is not
They are capable of more intense and
clear about which percentage of the popu-
profound interpersonal relations than other
lation they constitute, though we may esti-
people, though they are highly selective
mate less than 1 in 1000), will not be really
about which people they relate to, prefer-
at home in or adapted to their culture.
ring that company which allows them to be
According to Maslow, "they sometimes
spontaneous. The intimate friends and
feel like spies or aliens in a foreign land
lovers of self-actualizers are in general
and sometimes behave so". Their detach-
close to self-actualization themselves. Self-
ment and unconventionality will often be
actualizing relationships are characterized
interpreted as discourtesy, lack of respect
by extreme sincerity, self-disclosure and
or affection, or even as hostility. Their un-
intimacy, by the dropping of all defense
emotional and clear-cut decision-making
mechanisms. Sexuality can be deeply en-
in the treatment of others, e.g. in cutting off
joyed, yet it does not take an important
unsatisfactory relations, may seem cold
place in the system of values of a self-ac-
and ruthless. Their philosophical, unhostile
tualizer. They are quite uninhibited about
sense of humor, makes them look rather se-
sex, willing to experiment with different
rious in the eyes of ordinary people. In cer-
roles (which may go as far as resembling
tain situations their problem concentration
sado-masochism), but they are in no way
may be exacerbated into stubbornness, ab-
obsessed by it, and will in general not look
sent-mindedness and shortness of temper.
for sex without affection. Self-actualizing
A more general difficulty "normal
love is characterized as well by respect for
people" have with self-actualizers is sim-
the other's autonomy as by ego-transcend-
ply to understand them, since they behave
ing identification of the partners' needs, as
and think in a quite unusual manner. In
well by profound concern and care for the
particular it is difficult to situate them
other's well-being as by playfulness and
along one of the many dimensions or po-
laughter.
larities which are used to describe ordinary
personality types and behaviors, such as:
Imperfections and peculiarities
selfish-altruistic, extravert-introvert, ac-
The above description may have created an
tive-passive, intuitive-rational, sensual-
impression of an almost saintly perfection,
spiritual, serious-playful, etc. Self-actual-
but it must be understood that self-actual-
izers are neither selfish (extravert, active,
izers have their weaknesses and difficulties
etc.), nor altruistic (introvert, passive, etc.),
too. From the principle of bounded ratio-
nor somewhere in between: their behavior
nality we may infer that self-actualizers
is somehow selfish and altruistic at the
make errors as well as other persons,
same time, because what they like for
though in general they will be faster in
themselves is in general also good for
admitting and correcting them. Moreover
others.
reaching self-actualization is not a matter
This is what Maslow calls transcen-
of all-or-none, but a never-ending, gradual
dence of dichotomies. They often do not
process of improvement. In spite of this
make a choice between two apparently op-
continuity between more and less self-ac-
posite behaviors, but find a way of solving
tualizing levels of development, there are
the problem which synthesizes the advan-
clear qualitative differences between self-
tages of the two alternatives, without the
actualizers and "normal" people.
disadvantages. This capacity for "dialecti-
This may be exemplified by problems
cal synthesis" is perhaps the characteristic
and difficulties which are typical for self-
which most fundamentally distinguishes
actualizers. Since society is based on the
them from average people, and which
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A COGNITIVE-SYSTEMIC RECONSTRUCTION: MASLOW’S THEORY
45
makes it difficult to situate them in one of
being as conceived by Japanese Zen
the conventional psychological classifica-
Buddhism, "satori", seems quite similar to
tions of personality types.
"self-actualization", especially in its em-
phasis on the openness to experience, the
CRITICISMS OF MASLOW'S THEORY
not deficiency-motivated behavior and the
transcendence of dualities, and this rein-
Theoretical framework
forces my tendency to believe in Maslow's
Maslow's ideas have been criticized for
statement about the culture independence
their lack of an integrated conceptual
of self-actualizing behavior.
structure. His writings are heterogeneous
(his major book [8] is based on a collection
Empirical validation
of papers published in the 1940's and
The problem with Maslow's observations
1950's), and consist often of apparently
is that they are difficult to reproduce
unstructured lists of remarks. According to
(though there does exist a validated test for
Ewen [3, p. 368]: "Maslow's eclecticism
measuring the degree of self-actualization
[...] seems insufficiently thought out and
a person has reached [13]). Maslow is
includes too many confusions and contra-
rather vague about how he selected his
dictions. His study of self-actualizers has
subjects, and he acknowledges that his
been criticized on methodological grounds,
work could not conform to the conven-
and his theoretical constructs have been
tional criteria of psychological experimen-
characterized as overly vague, equivocal
tation because of the complexity of the
and untestable".
problem. Yet I would agree with his de-
Though the need hierarchy seems rela-
fense that it is preferable to carry out
tively simple and consistent, the concept of
methodologically primitive research about
self-actualization is not clearly defined.
fundamental problems, such as the condi-
There is a difficulty with the concept of
tions of human well-being, rather than re-
"actualization" itself, because it presup-
strict oneself to technically sophisticated
poses that there is somehow a well-defined
observations about minor issues.
set of potential talents an individual is ca-
The hierarchical emergence of needs
pable of developing, but a human system is
seems easier to test in an objective way,
much too complex to allow the discrimina-
and some empirical research has effec-
tion between "potential" developments and
tively been done, mostly in the area of
"impossible" ones. Moreover the definition
management and work satisfaction, but the
of self-actualization as fulfilment of all the
results are mixed at best, sometimes
basic needs does not always correspond
seeming to support the theory, sometimes
with self-actualization as observed in ex-
contradicting it [14, 15]. In particular the
isting persons: Maslow himself acknowl-
specific order in which needs (e.g. love
edges that sometimes self-actualization
and esteem) emerge, seems to be ambigu-
seems to spring from the frustration of a
ous.
certain need rather than from its gratifica-
Mook [11] illustrates another problem
tion [8].
by means of two case studies, one about an
Another criticism [11] stresses the sub-
African tribe which has lived in conditions
jectivity and specifically American bias of
of misery and insecurity for generations,
Maslow's criteria for psychological health,
and one about the behavior of people in
and suggests that in different societies,
Nazi death camps. In the first case,
such as Japan, an individualistic, au-
Maslow's theory seems to be confirmed:
tonomous personality like Maslow's self-
the frustration of the safety and sometimes
actualizer, would not be considered healthy
even the physiological needs seems to have
or well-adapted. To Maslow's defense, I
erased any behavior aimed at the satisfac-
can remark that the state of ultimate well-
tion of the higher needs: there is no sign of
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love, of affiliation, of esteem or achieve-
Maslow's theory has led us to the conclu-
ment among the people of the tribe. In the
sion that in addition to need gratification
second case, however, in spite of the con-
we must introduce a temporal factor, speci-
tinuous threat to safety and to life, people
fying when particular needs were gratified,
still retain some form of dignity and altru-
and a cognitive factor. If we want to build
ism.
a well-structured, transparent model, we
will have to integrate these factors into a
Specific problems
theory of the development of intelligent,
This last example points to where the basic
goal-directed action. Non-classical or sec-
problem lies: though it seems intuitively
ond order cybernetics has recently led to
evident that somebody who has been fight-
an insight into the relations between au-
ing for survival during his whole life will
tonomy (self-steering) and cognition [5, 7].
have difficulty to develop a higher sense of
An autonomous system can be defined
love, understanding and creativity, need
as a system which is able to actively main-
gratification alone does not seem sufficient
tain or reconstruct its basic organization
to explain in which circumstances self-ac-
(which defines its identity), by counteract-
tualization will or will not emerge. Other
ing or compensating the perturbations, in-
factors must be involved. The main differ-
duced by changes in the environment, or
ence between the African tribesmen and
by internal processes (e.g. entropy produc-
the Jews in the concentration camps seems
tion). The appearance of autonomous sys-
to be that the first ones never experienced
tems can be understood from evolution
need gratification in their life, while the
through natural selection [5, 6]. Typical
second ones probably have led a relatively
examples are biological organisms, whose
satisfying life before their persecution by
organization has been analysed as au-
the Nazis. So one important factor seems
topoietic (i.e. self-producing) by Maturana
to be the period during which basic needs
and Varela [10].
were or were not satisfied. Maslow partly
Autonomy presupposes cognition since
acknowledges this when he remarks that
in order to effectively compensate pertur-
self-actualizers can endure need frustration
bations, the system must be able: a) to dis-
much better than other people, because
tinguish or recognize specific perturba-
they have already received so much grati-
tions, b) to know which action will be ade-
fication in the past.
quate to compensate for the potentially de-
I want to propose another fundamental
structive effects of that specific perturba-
factor: cognition. It is striking that many, if
tion. The compensation process can be
not most, of the characteristics of self-ac-
conceived as problem-solving, where the
tualizers listed by Maslow are cognitive:
problem is defined by the discrepancy be-
accurate perception, creative problem-
tween the actual "perturbed" state of the
solving, effective decision-making, high
system, and the desired or goal state where
capacity for learning, etc. Self-actualizers
the perturbation has been compensated,
give an impression of a superior, flexible
restoring the stable organization of the
intelligence. Though Maslow mentions the
system. Solving the problem means finding
existence of a cognitive motive [8], cogni-
an adequate sequence of actions which
tion is absent in his need hierarchy
brings the perturbed state back to the de-
explaining the emergence of self-
sired state.
actualization.
If perturbations are conceived as simple
deviations from an equilibrium, which can
A SYSTEMIC FRAMEWORK FOR NEED THEORY
be controlled by negative feedback, the
system reduces to a cybernetic homeostat.
Autonomous systems
This may provide an adequate model for
An analysis of the shortcomings of
Maslow's physiological needs, but not for
Behavioral Science, Volume 37, 1992

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A COGNITIVE-SYSTEMIC RECONSTRUCTION: MASLOW’S THEORY
47
the higher needs. However, the "goal" of
be conceived as a long-term strategy for
an autonomous system is not a fixed equi-
survival. This leads us to distinguish be-
librium, but a dynamic process which con-
tween short-term and long-term processes.
tinuously reconstructs the system's identity.
This leads to the following extensions.
Urgency of perturbations and
needs
Maintenance and growth of iden-
A perturbation in this conception is not as-
tity
sumed to cause an immediate annihilation
The identity or organization to be main-
of the system if it is not compensated, but
tained is a rather abstract, high-level prop-
to "announce" or "direct the attention to-
erty emerging from a continuously chang-
wards" a possible annihilation in some far
ing network of interactions. Though ini-
or near future. The threat posed by a per-
tially corresponding to the "life" or sur-
turbation depends on two factors:
vival of the organism, it may develop into
a) how probable is the future annihilation,
something even more abstract, such as a
given the present perturbation?
concept of "self", or as the survival of an
b) how far in the future is the expected an-
idea with which the actor has identified.
nihilation, i.e. how much time does there
This allows us to explain the motivation
remain for compensating the perturbation?
of a martyr who gives his life for his reli-
Since the system cannot cope with all
gion or country. Though his biological or-
perturbations at once, there will be a prob-
ganism has died, in the eyes of the martyr
lem of resource allocation: the system must
he has succeeded to ensure the survival of
order the perturbations according to their
his higher-order identity. The shift of the
"urgency", starting with those where the
organization to be maintained from biolog-
probability for destruction is highest, and
ical organism to abstract idea carried inside
the time for compensation shortest. This
the organism is normally a continuous pro-
provides a first model for Maslow's hierar-
cess, so that we cannot say that at any
chy of needs.
point there was a lack or disappearance of
In general—though not necessarily in
identity. A conceivable exception would be
specific circumstances—direct physiologi-
a sudden conversion or brain-washing,
cal perturbations such as hunger or thirst
where the actor is induced to shift his
are more urgent than indirect threats, e.g.
identity in a discontinuous way, but this is
because of the presence of predators in the
from the point of view of the actor an un-
environment: in the first case the probabil-
expected process, which she did not "will",
ity of destruction without compensation is
and which hence does not need to be ex-
maximal, and the time horizon relatively
plained by a theory of motivation.
short, depending upon the type of pertur-
A good way to ensure the long-term
bation (hunger is less urgent than thirst, for
survival of a particular type of organization
example). In the second case the probabil-
consists in maximally reproducing this or-
ity is smaller than 1, and the time horizon
ganization: the more copies of the initial
is in general longer, though an attack by a
organization there are, the smaller the
lion may of course be imminent. This case
chance that all of them would be de-
corresponds to the safety need.
stroyed. Hence the biological need for re-
In order to explain the higher needs, we
production (and thus sexuality) may also
must look at cases where the probability
be understood as a special case of the gen-
becomes even lower, and the time horizon
eral need for identity reconstruction. More
even larger. These are situations where we
generally, the "growth" or "development"
cannot not really speak about a "perturba-
of a particular organization, in the sense of
tion", but rather about a "potential pertur-
making the organization larger, more nu-
bation". For example, as I am sitting be-
merous, more adaptive, stronger, etc., can
hind my desk now, I do not experience any
Behavioral Science, Volume 37, 1992

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48
HEYLIGHEN
actual threat to my health, yet I know that
you have some expectancies, but no cer-
statistically there is a non-negligible prob-
tainties, you would like to get some reac-
ability that I would die from a heart attack
tion, which either confirms your expectan-
sometime in the years to come. If I want to
cies (this is of course the best case), or dis-
compensate for this potential perturbation,
confirms them. However, you would feel
there is no obvious equilibrium to be re-
quite unsatisfied if you did not get any re-
stored or danger to be fled. The only thing
action, feedback, or reinforcement at all,
I can do is trying to understand as well as
positive or negative. It is because of the
possible all the possible factors increasing
feedback you get, that you can strengthen
the probability of a heart attack, and to find
your confidence or improve your knowl-
a protective environment and life-style
edge about which results can be expected
where these factors are minimally present.
in which circumstances. This feedback
There are two aspects here: the need for
motive may explain Maslow's esteem
external care or protection, and the need
need, because receiving acknowledgment
for individual knowledge. I might find the
from others, and experiencing personal
first one by having a loving family which
achievement is clearly a basic form of
cares for me if I am ill, and a good doctor
feedback or reinforcement. It also explains
and hospital, which can discover the symp-
part of the love motive, because interper-
toms of a threatening heart attack and pro-
sonal relations do not only provide protec-
tect me against it by adapted medicine. The
tion, they also provide interaction and con-
need for protection is a prolongation of the
versation, i.e. a continuing process of mu-
need for safety. It explains part of
tual feedback.
Maslow's "love and belonging" need, be-
Getting knowledge by feedback is still
cause we will find external help and pro-
quite limited, however, because it presup-
tection in the first place by our belonging
poses that there is already a sensitivity or
to a group and by our interpersonal rela-
recognition for certain variables between
tionships.
which an association could exist. It is not
If the external protection is good
sufficient if you want to learn completely
enough, there is no need for personal
new variables and associations. What you
knowledge: if I do not know how to avoid
need to do then is exploration, i.e. trying
a heart disease, the doctor will know it for
out things without any a priori expectations
me. However, the doctor's knowledge will
which can be confirmed or disconfirmed.
be restricted to general, statistical proper-
This defines a next motive, the curiosity or
ties of heart diseases, and cannot include
exploration need, which may explain part
all the individual peculiarities of my own
of Maslow's self-actualization need. The
life-style and sensitivity to diseases. This is
difference between self-actualization as a
a general principle: no existing knowledge
drive to maximally develop one's compe-
will be perfectly adapted to all the specific
tences, and simple exploration, is that the
situations an autonomous system will en-
first one integrates everything which has
counter. The only way to compensate for
been achieved before by satisfaction of the
that is to equip the autonomous actor with
lower needs: the confidence about the sit-
a capacity for individual learning.
uation of the actor developed from the sat-
A basic paradigm for learning is the
isfaction of the safety and protection
strengthening or weakening of associations
needs, and the confidence the actor has
by positive or negative reinforcement, as
about his own competence for problem-
exemplified by operant conditioning. This
solving and capacity for learning achieved
learning mechanism explains the emer-
by the satisfaction of the feedback need.
gence of a motive or need for reinforce-
This is the highest level of needs, because
ment or feedback: if you are trying to solve
exploration has the least direct effect on
a problem or doing something about which
short-term perturbations, but has the most
Behavioral Science, Volume 37, 1992

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