Copyright © 2008 by the author(s). Published here under license by the Resilience Alliance.
Laumonier, Y., R. Bourgeois, and J.-L. Pfund. 2008. Accounting for the ecological dimension in
participatory research and development: lessons learned from Indonesia and Madagascar. Ecology and
Society 13(1): 15. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art15/
Synthesis, part of a Special Feature on Do we need new management paradigms to achieve sustainability
in tropical forests?
Accounting for the Ecological Dimension in Participatory Research and
Development: Lessons Learned from Indonesia and Madagascar
Yves Laumonier 1, Robin Bourgeois 1, and Jean-Laurent Pfund 2
ABSTRACT. The lack of understanding on how to integrate ecological issues into so-called social-
ecological natural resource management hampers sustainability in tropical forest landscape management.
We build upon a comparison of three cases that show inverse gradients of knowledge and perceptions of
the environment and human pressure on natural resources. We discuss why the ecological dimension
currently lags behind in the management of tropical forest landscapes and to what extent participatory
development can enhance the fit among ecological, socio-cultural, and economic systems. For each case
study, socio-cultural and anthropological aspects of society and indigenous knowledge of the environment,
the distribution of natural resources, classification, and management are documented in parallel with
biophysical studies. Our results confirm that the ecological dimension remains weakly addressed and
difficult to integrate into development actions when dealing with tropical forested landscape management
in developing countries. We discuss three issues to understand why this is so: the disdain for traditional
ecological knowledge and practices, the antagonism between economy and ecology, and the mismatch
between traditional and modern governance systems. Participatory development shows potential to enhance
the fit among ecological, socio-cultural, and economic systems through two dimensions: the generation
and sharing of information to understand trends and the generation of new coordination practices that allow
stakeholders to voice environmental concerns. In the absence of a “champion,” institutions, and financial
resources, the expected outcomes remain on paper, even when changes are negotiated. Future research in
natural resource management must emphasize better integration at the interface of ecology and governance.
Finally, we identify three challenges: the design of operational tools to reconcile ecology with social and
economic concerns, the creation of governance systems to institutionalize collaborative and integrated
resource management, and the design of enabler organizations close to local communities.
Key Words: ecological dimension; Indonesia; Madagascar; management of natural resources; multiple
stakeholders; participatory research and development; tropical forest landscapes
INTRODUCTION
forces into appropriate policy and management
strategies in such areas requires the facilitation of a
At the interface of environmental and social issues,
participatory development approach for the
not enough is known about the links between
empowerment of local stakeholders in land use and
policies, regionally important biophysical factors,
resource management planning (Frost et al. 2006)
local natural resource management sustainability,
and a deeper analysis of social-ecological systems
and livelihoods. There is still a need for better
at a landscape level (van Noordwijk et al. 2001,
understanding of environment-development relationships
Zuidema and Sayer 2003). Community views and
that are particularly relevant to policy-making and
perceptions of conservation and landscape need to
livelihoods and that will enable the development
be understood and documented in a format that is
and validation of improved natural resource
readily accessible to planners and developers (Sheil
management, conservation, and development
et al. 2006, Vermeulen and Sheil 2007).
strategies
in
tropical
forested
landscapes.
Reconciling ecology and the pressure of economic
The participation of local communities and other
1Centre Coopération International en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), 2International Center for Forestry Research (CIFOR)

---

Ecology and Society 13(1): 15
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art15/
stakeholders in such planning and management
(Sayer and Campbell 2004). Ecological science
processes has long been advocated as a mandatory
does not have much policy impact in Western
step to achieve sustainability in development
countries (Stevens et al. 2007), and the situation is
(Brinkerhoff and Garcia-Zamor 1986, Marsden and
even worse in developing countries where purely
Oakley 1990, Cernea 1991). The demand from
economic growth criteria still largely dominate
development and conservation agencies and
development paradigms.
international nongovernmental organizations for
more participatory development keeps growing
Why then is the ecological dimension always
(World Bank 1996, Brinkerhoff 1997, Gonsalves et
lagging behind in tropical forest landscape
al. 2005) while research emphasizes the
management, and to what extent can participatory
development of new adaptive co-management
development enhance a better fit between
concepts (Folke et al. 2002, Olsson et al. 2004,
ecological, socio-cultural, and economic systems?
Colfer 2005). Campbell and Vainio-Mattila (2003)
To discuss this, we use a comparative approach
have discussed the many complexities involved in
based on three case studies selected from our
the application of this participatory development
experience in Indonesia and Madagascar. For these
concept (also referred to as participatory resource
cases, we analyzed key social-ecological features
management or community-based natural resource
and sought multistakeholder consensus on
management), as opposed to the community-based
sustainable development through participatory
conservation (biodiversity conservation) concept.
knowledge generation.
Here, we use the following definition of
participatory development: “a process through
which stakeholders can influence and share control
SITES AND METHODS
over development initiatives, and over the decisions
and resources that affect them. Stakeholders are
Site selection
those affected positively or negatively by the
outcome, or those who can affect the outcome of a
We selected three cases that represent a gradient of
development
activity
or
program”
(Asian
population pressure on the environment, which
Development Bank 1996).
pressure nevertheless is uncorrelated with the size
of the population; in fact, the smallest population
The interdependent ecological, economic, and
density had the most degraded environment:
socio-cultural dimensions of sustainable development
Tanimbar, Indonesia; Beforona, Madagascar; and
and the fit of these dimensions have been abundantly
Mahakam Delta, Indonesian Borneo. These cases
researched and documented since the 1992 United
illustrate three rural development schemes of
Nations conference in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and
tropical landscapes that are characterized by the
the development of the social-ecological system
occupation and influence of a traditional society,
concept of Berkes and Folke (1998). However, 10
traditional society mixed with migrants, and
yr after their initial essay on the problems of fit
migrants only, respectively. We used specific
between ecosystems and institutions, Folke et al.
criteria to substantiate the comparability of these
(2007) point out that the “dominant work on
cases (Table 1). There was high consistency among
economic and social globalization still lacks the
the cases, justifying their relevance for a
connection to the biosphere and ecosystem
comparative analysis. Although the comparative
capacity.” We subscribe to this statement because,
exercise creates challenges in drawing generic
notwithstanding a significant amount of ecological
meaning across the three cases, it illustrates the
research, progress in integrating the ecological
diversity of realities related to the ecological
dimension into the development of tropical
dimension of participatory development and lays
landscapes remains quite slow. Although ecological
the foundation for a discussion of common lessons
guidelines for land management decisions are
learned. We characterized the main features of the
regularly recommended in the landscape ecology
three forested regions in which the management of
approach (Forman and Godron 1986, Forman 1995,
natural resources is being approached through
Dale and Haeuber 2001), they remain mostly on
participatory development (Table 2).
paper. The lack of understanding of how to integrate
ecosystem information into natural resource
The Tanimbar Archipelago, located in the
management also limits the potential to minimize
Moluccas, eastern Indonesia, is dominated by the
trade-offs between conservation and development
island of Yamdena. It shares the problems of many

---

Ecology and Society 13(1): 15
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art15/
Table 1. Background information for the inductive comparison and comparability of the cases.
Criterion
Tanimbar (Indonesia)
Beforona (Madagascar)
Mahakam Delta (Indonesia)
Intensity of
Low pressure by long-established
Medium to strong pressure by
Strong pressure by very recent
pressure on the
local communities
local communities and a few
local communities of migrants
environment
recent migrants
Stakeholders
Multiple: local population, local
Multiple: local population, local Multiple: local population, local
government, local technical
government, local traders,
government, nongovernmental
agencies, local traders,
nongovernmental organizations, organizations, private
nongovernmental organizations,
regional and national technical
companies, international
regional and national government, agencies, regional and national
companies
private companies
government
Knowledge gener- Multidisciplinary, multiple tools,
Multidisciplinary, multiple
Multidisciplinary, multiple
ation
multiscale, integrated results
tools, multiscale, integrated
tools, multiscale, integrated
results
results
Stakeholder invol- Participation in the design and
Participation in the design and
Participation in the design and
vement
implementation of research,
implementation of research,
implementation of research,
discussion, and validation of the
discussion, and validation of the discussion, and validation of the
results
results
results
small islands in that it is geographically, politically,
forest cover by 1950 and two-thirds by 1985 (Green
and economically isolated; most livelihoods are
and Sussman 1990). The study site covers a gradient
heavily dependent on subsistence agriculture and
of vegetation degradation from the remaining
wild products from the sea and forest. Standard
forests at an elevation of approximately 1200 m
poverty indicators are worse than for Indonesia as
above sea level to lowland areas close to the littoral
a whole. The people are confined to the coast and
zone.
depend on inland forested catchments for fresh
water during the dry season. The forest still covers
The Mahakam Delta is located on the east coast of
70% of the land, an exceptional situation in
Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. The original
Indonesia. In this fragile environment, livelihoods
vegetation consisted of swamp formations with a
could very easily be threatened by unsustainable
vegetation succession from upstream to seashore of
exploitation of resources and poorly planned
freshwater swamp forest, pure Nypa fructicans
development.
stands, and mixed Nypa and mangrove vegetation.
The dominant Nypa used to cover 55% of the total
The Beforona region, located approximately 160
vegetation area, representing one of the biggest
km east of Antananarivo, is located on the eastern
unmixed formations of this type in the world. Until
escarpment of Madagascar, for which the
the 1970s, access to the Mahakam Delta remained
deforestation
history
is
well
documented
difficult and the environment was inhospitable.
(Faramalala 1995, Brand 1998). The littoral zone
Human activities were sparse and mainly located in
was already partly deforested at the beginning of
a few coastal villages. The local population
the 19th century, mostly for rice cultivation and zebu
consisted of descendants of the Bugis and Bajo
ranching. Higher on the escarpment, new villages
migrants from nearby Sulawesi, who brought their
were developed from the middle to the end of the
own fishing folk culture with them.
19th century, often in relation to logging activities
(Zurbuchen 2004). The eastern coast of Madagascar
had lost approximately one-third of its original

---

Ecology and Society 13(1): 15
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art15/
Table 2. Main features of the three forested regions in which the management of natural resources is being
approached through participatory research and development.
.
Feature
Tanimbar archipelago
Beforona region
Mahakam Delta (Indonesia)
(Indonesia)
(Madagascar)
Location
7°35’ S, 131°36’ E
18°58’ S, 48°34’ E
0°45’ S, 117°28’ E
Area
3300 km² (Yamdena Island)
A corridor of 250 km² (30
1500 km²
of which ~970 km² is
km² for selected village
agricultural landscape
territories)
Physiography
0–250 m in elevation; rolling 200–1200 m in elevation;
0–5 m in elevation; swampy
hills, dissected topography
hilly and steep slopes,
lowlands
dissected topography
Rainfall
1500–2500 mm/yr
2000–3500 mm/yr
2000–2500 mm/yr
Population
51,000 (Yamdena Island);
20,000 (two communes);
20,000;
selected villages: 500 to 2500 selected villages: 150 to 350
selected villages: 1000 to
inhabitants
inhabitants
2000 inhabitants
Population density
Island density: 15 people/
Commune density: 80
13 people/km²
km², rural density: 52 people/ people/km², rural density: 30
km²
people/km²
Annual population growth
< 2%
3%
4%
Settlement
Scattered settlements and one Scattered settlements and
Scattered settlements
small town (Saumlaki:
two small towns (one town is
15,000 inhabitants)
Beforona: 10,000
inhabitants)
Land cover
Lowland rainforest, moist
Altitudinal sequence from
Fish ponds, some degraded
deciduous and dry decidous
grassland region of the east
mangrove swamp and Nypa
forests, secondary growth,
coast to hill forest remnants
vegetation
food crop fields
up to 800 m above sea level
with submontane forest
above, secondary growth,
food crop fields, home
gardens
Social-ecological concerns
Still relatively little pressure
Long-lasting ecological
Complete deforestation and
and development needs
on environment from local
decline related to slash-and-
environmental degradation for
society / Customary rules
burn practices for upland rice shrimp aquaculture / Extreme
still in use / Growing
cultivation / Last forest
pressure on natural resources
pressure from outsiders and
pioneer front at the top of the exploited by migrants / No
local government to exploit
escarpment / High pressure
customary rules
intact natural resources
on natural resources due to
(forest and sea) / Danger of
demography and migration /
anarchic development for a
Effects of migrants on the
very fragile environment
farming system

---

Ecology and Society 13(1): 15
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art15/
Methods
government, whereas surveys helped to improve the
understanding of socioeconomic and ecological
The methodology was the same at each site. The
dimensions at the household level. In the case of
main stakeholders were identified first. The social-
Mahakam, a commodity chain analysis (Bourgeois
ecological and economic data were then acquired,
and Herrera 2003) was used to study relationships
and stakeholder involvement was fostered for
between shrimp farmers, traders, and cold storage
consensus building on goals and actions required
companies.
for participatory development (Table 3).
Fostering stakeholders’ involvement and building
Acquisition of social-ecological and economic data
consensus
For each location, the historical, socio-cultural, and
To initiate a negotiation process and to improve the
anthropological characteristics of the local society
relevance of the results in building consensus,
and its knowledge of the environment, the
stakeholders from all parties concerned by the
distribution of natural resources, folk classification,
development were identified and consulted from the
and management (Tanimbar: Purwanto et al. 2004;
start at regular participatory stakeholder expert
Beforona: Pfund 2000; Mahakam: Levang 2002)
meetings using the proactive conciliation tool, or
were studied in parallel with biophysical and
PACT method, developed by Jésus and Bourgeois
ecological studies (Tanimbar: Persulessy et al.
(2002, 2003) in the Indonesian cases. This method
2004, Lidon and Kartiwa 2005; Beforona: Brand
helped to develop a common understanding of the
1998, Pfund 2000; Mahakam: Hopley 1999,
current situation and evolution of the problems and
Creocean 2000). Special emphasis was given to the
to begin the construction of collective agreements
documentation of traditional ecological practices
on resource management and planning.
used by societies: for example, resource extractive
activities, the maintenance of services provided by
Back-and-forth processes of interaction between the
ecological systems (water supply, flood control, soil
study teams and stakeholders were implemented.
preservation, biodiversity), attempts to replicate or
These relied on continuous dialog between the
imitate natural systems (traditional agroforestry),
stakeholders facilitated by the generation and
and general traditional knowledge regarding the
sharing of findings. All actions emphasized
sustainable management of resources.
participation, capacity building, transparency, and
accountability as the keys to the successful
GIS databanks, including remote sensing images
integration of external and local perspectives. The
and aerial photographs, were used to integrate
communities were collectively involved from the
spatial data and facilitate visions of past and present
start of the process. Social-ecological information
environmental issues (Tanimbar: Jewell et al. 2006,
was shared; training was given not only to local
Laumonier
2006;
Beforona:
Brand
1998;
technical agencies, but also to village people. The
Mahakam: Bourgeois et al. 2002). Maps generated
latter helped to strengthen village land use and
from the GIS databases were bridged with spatially
natural resource management planning capabilities,
relevant participatory information provided by
to build a stronger local team able to apply
communities and used as critical tools for common-
participatory methodologies, and to spread the
ground discussions. The resulting participatory
concept further in other villages. Enthusiasm and
maps promoted the interactive participation of
resulting participation were further encouraged by
stakeholders in dealing with spatial information and
fostering the willingness to cooperate in providing
facilitated effective communication, common
information through either group discussions or
visions, and decision-making processes between
one-on-one discussions and interviews and in
local communities and government.
providing access to other development actors.
Participatory rural appraisal and household survey
Common vision and shared direction are critical for
techniques were used in the community research
successful management. Participatory prospective
and information-gathering process (Pfund 2000,
analysis techniques were developed and used for
Bourgeois et al. 2002, Shantiko et al. 2004).
this purpose in the Indonesian cases (Bourgeois and
Participatory rural appraisal focused on the
Jésus 2004, Astawa et al. 2006). In Madagascar, the
generation of collectively agreed-upon descriptions
results of systemic analyses (Messerli and Pfund
of actual conditions within the community and local
1999)
and
synthesis
reports
(Hurni
and

---

Ecology and Society 13(1): 15
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art15/
Table 3. Supporting data and sampling characteristics for the three case studies.
Data or sampling
Tanimbar (Indonesia)
Beforona (Madagascar)
Mahakam Delta (Indonesia)
characteristic
Land cover maps and
LANDSAT Thematic
Aerial orthophotographs;
LANDSAT Thematic Mapper
stratification
Mapper satellite data; 1996,
1957, 1968, 1987, 1994
satellite data; 1992, 1996,
2002
1999, 2001
Ecological data
Vegetation: 15 sites, 75 plots Vegetation: 252 plots of 0.03 Secondary data from Hopley
of 0.2 ha
to 0.08 ha
(1999) and Creocean (2000)
Soil: 75 sites and 450
Soil: 160 samples
samples
Socioeconomic data
15 village studies (population 6 village-level appraisals and 50 respondents for
of 500–2500) using an in-
a survey of 42 households for stakeholders’ typology; a
depth socioeconomic survey
indicators such as access to
survey of 100 households for
of 450 households for
land, agricultural techniques
25 socioeconomic indicators,
indicators such as access to
and calendar, and household
including pond operation,
land, agricultural techniques
economy (investment in time economics, and technology;
and calendar, and household
and benefits from different
in-depth interviews of 30
economy (see Shantiko et al. land uses)
shrimp traders
2004)
Socio-cultural
15 villages; extensive
6 villages; extensive
Extensive interview of elders
interview of elders and
community appraisal and
to track the evolution of Bugis
customary and religious
interview of elders and
settlements in the delta
leaders
customary leaders
(genealogy, local rules,
sacred sites)
Ramamonjisoa 1999) were used to gather
cultivation rights can be passed on to the next
stakeholders and catalyze collaborative strategies at
generation. Within the petuanan, the traditional
local and national levels through a series of meetings
system for managing natural resources is known as
and workshops. We discuss the comparative results
sasi. This system, criticized for not being fully
using the following common analytical structure:
equitable (Zerner 1994), nevertheless regulates the
local perceptions and use of the environment, land
period of use of natural resources such as forest, sea,
use changes and disturbances, and steps toward
and plantations. It is based on mutual benefits and
participatory development.
strengthens social cohesion (Novaczek et al. 2001,
Purwanto et al. 2004). Tanimbar societies today are
still highly obedient to sasi rules.
LOCAL PERCEPTIONS AND USE OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
Resource-based activities (agriculture, fisheries,
and foresty) represent > 70% of the population’s
Tanimbar, Indonesia
income. In addition to the production of copra (dried
coconut), people cultivate vegetables, corn, upland
Sovereignty based on common property rights is
rice, and tubers according to the season and use little
central to Tanimbar society and occurs at three
chemical fertilizer. Livestock such as pigs, goats,
levels: household, clan (marga), and soa (a group
and chickens mostly represent savings. Depending
of marga). The management of customary land
on the season, fishing also provides substantial
(petuanan) is based on the “eating together” sharing
additional income for households. Other valuable
principle. Land is not owned by individuals, but the
marine products such as sea cucumber and top shells

---

Ecology and Society 13(1): 15
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art15/
(Trochus spp.) are traditionally managed under sasi
they spare useful woody species. At the landscape
and are looked after very cautiously. Nontimber
level, they maintain sacred riverine and hilltop
forest products represent 8% of the total income,
forests. Households, especially within kinship
which is twice the contribution of timber. Since the
groups, try to concentrate their properties along
local ban on industrial logging in 1992, wood
secondary valleys or microwatersheds because
extraction has been essentially community based.
these allow crop diversification, as well as easier
access to and control of fields and forest, than do
Our investigations indicate that > 350 species are
other areas.
used in all aspects of daily life. The indigenous
knowledge of the landscape itself recognizes several
land cover and land-use units associated with good
Mahakam Delta, Indonesian Borneo
soils for agriculture. The communities also have a
clear representation of the spatial allocation of land-
In the Mahakam Delta, no customary law controls
use rights and a clear understanding of the
access to the area and its natural resources, which
relationships between deforestation and changes in
is under the responsibility of the Ministry of
the condition of the natural resources such as water
Forestry and is classified as swamp forest. Local
availability and quality.
forestry services do not view the Mahakam Delta as
a valuable asset because of the dominance of Nypa
palms over mangrove tree species. Land allocation
Beforona, Madagascar
by local village rulers was not an issue when the
population of fishers first settled. The only
In Beforona, the dominant ethnic group, known as
ecological practice that was tacitly respected was
the Betsimisaraka, has maintained a strong cultural
that of keeping a protective mangrove belt
identity and indigenous knowledge in rural areas.
separating the ponds from the sea or riverbanks.
Farmers are very knowledgeable about the different
types of vegetation and use indicators such as leaf
color to evaluate soil fertility. Half of the 750 plant
LAND USE CHANGES AND
species listed by Pfund (2000) have a local use, and
DISTURBANCES
> 100 are commonly used. The core production
system, a slash-and-burn practice locally known as
Tanimbar, Indonesia
tavy, has been handed down from generation to
generation. Fallow and upland rice fields cover
In Tanimbar, the more traditional remote villages
approximately 60% of the village territories. This
of the west contrast with those on the east coast. In
system is anchored in cultural values related to the
the east, customary territories are smaller, the
veneration of ancestors and their practices. Access
topography is steeper, river basins are short, and the
rights to the land fall roughly into three categories:
risk of ecological decline, erosion, and land
community rights, especially for land dedicated to
conflicts is higher. In the south, closest to the main
special harvests for the celebration of ancestors, in
city, a shortage of access to new land has already
places called sembotrano (clothes of the ancestors);
resulted in a degraded landscape largely dominated
kinship group rights; and rarer access for
by invasive species like bakurang (Chromolaena
households alone when land has been “privatized”
odorata) as a result of overfarming and burning. The
from kinship lands.
building of new roads also created new pioneer
fronts, as can be observed along the Saumlaki-Arui
The burning of slashed vegetation is considered
east coast road.
important by local people because it is supposed to
warm the soil and eradicate pests such as rats. The
Starting in the early 1990s, a logging company
preservation or longer duration of fallow periods
operated for 2 yr and then left the area because of
combined with more restricted access has resulted
the severe social turmoil its activities created among
in sembotrano being less degraded than the
the local people. The social and environmental
surrounding areas. Farmers also follow some
effects of this commercial logging brought
agricultural practices relevant to sustainable
considerable national and international attention
management. They use fire-breaks and burn the
and resulted in an unprecedented decision: the
fields according to wind direction to avoid
suspension of logging operations on Yamdena
uncontrolled wildfire. When weeding rice fields,
Island. Of great concern was that communities were

---

Ecology and Society 13(1): 15
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art15/
not given any representation within the planning
fields and cash crop production areas. For monetary
process and that traditional land- and forest-use
income, farmers are worried by the instability of
rights were being effectively ignored in favor of
banana and coffee prices.
profits from commercial timber production. Apart
from the social issues, a particular environmental
A noticeable shift in cultivation strategies occurred
worry of scientists was the effect of commercial
during the 1990s. Highland migrants were allowed
logging activities on soil types that have very high
to found new villages through alliances. They
potential erosion rates under seasonal climate. Since
cultivated ginger and developed commercial
then, several attempts have been made by timber
networks. Because of good economic returns, they
companies to reopen concessions, thus far
were soon copied by local farmers. In 1998, ginger
unsuccessfully.
production became the second most important
household activity in terms of labor investment.
With such a high level of forest cover, which
This wide and rapid adoption of ginger production
includes high-value timber species, but with a strong
had negative ecological effects that were stronger
communal sense of ownership for ancestral lands,
than those under the tavy system. In particular, the
the potential for future conflicts over the use of
need to till the soil to grow ginger makes fields more
forest resources in Tanimbar is very high. A
prone to weed invasion and nutrient leaching.
participatory approach was advocated to help avoid
conflicts in the design and implementation of new
natural resource management plans.
Mahakam Delta, Indonesian Borneo
Oil and cold storage companies began operations in
Beforona, Madagascar
the Mahakam Delta in the mid-1970s. The influx of
workers created a new market for local products,
In Beforona, the road linking the harbor of
especially fish and seafood. By introducing the local
Toamasina to Antananarivo is strongly influenced
black tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) to the
by the history of human settlement and agriculture.
international market and by lending capital to
At the beginning of the 20th century, colonial
selected fishers, cold storage companies dramatically
programs promoted coffee and other cash crops in
changed the local economy.
the region, leading to an agricultural landscape
dominated by upland rice, coffee, and banana.
The prohibition of trawl fishing by the Indonesian
government in 1980 led fishing communities to
Farmers first cleared fields in the more fertile valley
experiment with ponds. In the 1990s, excavators
bottoms and built villages close to the rivers.
progressively replaced manual labor; shrimp
Nowadays, where remote forest is still accessible at
farming turned from a small-scale family activity
higher elevations and on more fragile soils, farmers
into an industrial business. From 1995 onward,
who are short of land still use the same techniques.
immigration peaked and shrimp ponds expanded
Only rocky land on hilltops is avoided. Elsewhere,
tremendously. The 1997–1998 monetary crisis
labor constraints and social aspects encourage
trebled the local value of the shrimp while input
farmers to keep their fields as close to their
costs remained unchanged (Fig. 2). In 2002, 75%
dwellings as possible. The fallow duration is the
of the area was covered by productive ponds or
first parameter to be modified under increased
ponds in preparation, whereas most of the Nypa area
demographic pressure. Outside sembotrano,
had disappeared. Ponds even encroached upon the
farmers have reduced fallow periods to an average
upstream freshwater swamp forest.
of 5 yr. As forest disappears, the nutrients stored in
the vegetation are lost. The distributions of invasive
The delta became a wealthy area. Some of the poor
weeds expand, increasing labor needs and
migrants from the 1970s today exploit thousands of
constraining investment in other activities. Finally,
hectares of shrimp ponds. The natural fertility of the
aluminum toxicity and changes in soil texture make
delta produced immediate returns, and the net value
it impossible to cultivate rice (Fig. 1).
of shrimp production, which was almost nil in the
early 1970s, reached US$ 100 million in 2001
Rice is grown mainly for self-consumption, but is
(Bourgeois et al. 2002). Shrimp farming intensified
sometimes used for urgent cash needs. The loss of
through the increased use of inputs and
productive soils and the resulting decrease in upland
mechanization.
rice production forces farmers to both extend rice

---

Ecology and Society 13(1): 15
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art15/
Fig. 1. Effects of repeated slash-and-burn cultivation practices on vegetation and the carbon and nutrient
contents of soil and vegetation. The average effect of the repeated slash-and-burn cultivation cycle
(generally 1 yr cultivation, 5 yr fallow) on carbon and nutrient stocks (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, and magnesium) can be measured in vegetation and soils along a degradation gradient from
rain forest to shrub fallow, mixed fallow, degraded fallow, and grassland (Brand and Pfund 1998). The
time taken to pass from one stage to another is approximate, based on interviews with farmers about past
cultivation cycles. The first threshold is the transformation of forest into agricultural land. The organic
matter in the soil increases, but the nutrients stored in the vegetation are mainly lost. The second
threshold is the appearance of invasive species. The third threshold is decisive because the soils become
depleted and it is impossible to cultivate rice, mainly because of changes in texture and aluminum
toxicity.

---

Ecology and Society 13(1): 15
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art15/
Fig. 2. Land cover and land-use change in the Mahakam Delta (1992–2001), after Bourgeois et al.
(2002).
Rapidly, problems of soil loss, decreasing pond
that the activities of the oil companies caused the
productivity, dyke erosion, and shrimp diseases
production losses that they were experiencing.
emerged. The functions and values of the mangrove
Local environmental nongovernmental organizations
forest disappeared, in turn threatening shrimp
entered the game, mostly supporting the shrimp
farming. Like elsewhere, shrimp ponds are the
farmers’ claims. Finally, the local government tried
indisputable cause of the destruction of the
to intervene after witnessing the degradation of the
mangrove forest (Macintosh and Zisman 1997). The
mangrove forest, the rising conflicts, and the
average production of black tiger prawns was 80 kg/
economic loss caused by failing shrimp production,
ha in 2002 compared to reports of 600 kg/ha 10 yr
which had been a major source of income.
earlier. Total harvest failure has also occurred. The
system lacks sustainability, and the threshold of
ecological sustainability was already transgressed
STEPS TOWARD PARTICIPATORY
in approximately 1996–1997 (Fig. 3). Shrimp
DEVELOPMENT
production on a large scale experienced its well-
known boom-and-bust cycle (Spaninks and van
Tanimbar, Indonesia
Beukening 1997, Primavera 2000, Hein 2002,
Huitric et al. 2002), resulting in its own collapse, as
In Tanimbar, the shortcomings of the old land
well as the total destruction of the environment.
allocation maps and plan were acknowledged by the
parties involved, and a participatory research and
By 2000, no land was available for further shrimp
development program was established to promote
pond development, and competition for land often
and facilitate the integration of local concerns and
turned into conflict. Conflicts expanded and linked
national priorities in a new land-use plan. The
the shrimp and oil sectors: shrimp farmers claimed
stakeholders’ involvement culminated in a series of

---

Document Outline

• Title
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Sites and methods
  • Site selection
  • Methods
• Local perceptions and use of the environment
  • Tanimbar, indonesia
  • Beforona, madagascar
  • Mahakam delta, indonesian borneo
• Land use changes and disturbances
  • Tanimbar, indonesia
  • Beforona, madagascar
  • Mahakam delta, indonesian borneo
• Steps toward participatory development
  • Tanimbar, indonesia
  • Beforona, madagascar
  • Mahakam delta, indonesian borneo
• Discussion and lessons learned
  • Local perceptions of the ecological dimension
  • The role of participatory development in enhancing the fit between ecological, socio-cultural, and economic systems
• Conclusions
  • Designing operational tools to reconcile ecology with social and economic concerns
  • Creating governance systems to institutionalize collaborative and integrated resource management
  • Designing and supporting enabler organizations close to local communities
• Responses to this article
• Acknowledgments
• Literature cited
• Figure1
• Figure2
• Figure3
• Table1
• Table2
• Table3

---