AIDS TO SURVIVAL

W A P O L I C E A C A D E M Y C O M M A N D & L A N D O P E R A T I O N S U N I T

AIDS TO SURVIVAL

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A I D S T O S U R V I V A L



























Twenty Second Edition [First Issued 1979]

June 2002


This book is a Western Australia Police Academy Publication and is available free of charge
to individuals from their local Police Station. Organisations or groups requiring larger
quantities can access and download this publication from our website
[www.police.wa.gov.au]. The book is offered as an ongoing service in the interest of
community safety. The contents are not subject to copyright and there are no restrictions on
copying in any form by interested individuals and groups.
In keeping with the mission of the Western Australia Police Service to work in partnership
with the community to create a safer and more secure Western Australia by providing quality
police services the Command & Land Operations Unit at the Western Australia Police
Academy invite comments, affirmations and suggestions for possible inclusion in future
editions in an endeavour to improve this publication. Comments may be forwarded to the
Command & Land Operations Unit at the Western Australia Police Academy.

A copy of this publication has been deposited in the Australian National Library.
ISBN: 0-646-36303-4
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A I D S T O S U R V I V A L
Introduction

This Western Australia Police Academy publication was initially written and compiled by
Sergeant Bert O’Meagher APM, Officer In Charge, Command & Land Operations Unit at the
Western Australia Police Academy in collaboration with First Class Constable Dennis Reid
and Dr Ross Harvey MBBS Dobst RCOG.
The Command & Land Operations Unit was introduced to provide members of the Western
Australia Police Service with the necessary skills and knowledge to carry out their duties in
outback Western Australia and to enable them to co-ordinate or participate in emergency
operations and advise on outback safety. In keeping with the WA Police Service mission to
provide a safer and more secure Western Australia the unit is concerned with the education of
interested community groups and individuals.
Originally the book was produced to provide members of the Western Australia Police
Service with a locally produced source of reference for use in training and for dissemination
to the public. To this end the book has proved to be extremely successful, this being the 22nd
edition with over 435,000 copies being distributed since its introduction in 1979.
The book is required reading for several community groups, youth organisations, education
institutions and industry trainers throughout Western Australia. It is now available on the
Internet under the WA Police Service website.
A dedicated group of community minded individuals and organisations have contributed
information and items over the years and their efforts and contributions are much appreciated.
Contributors include - Peter Bindon, Vern Delgado, Arthur Connor, Graham Brammer,
Ronele and Eric Gard, Richard Lushey, John Evans [CALM], The Duke of Edinburgh’s
Award [WA], The Royal Lifesaving Society [WA], St John Ambulance [WA], Red Cross
[WA], Bureau Of Meteorology [WA], Australian Communications Authority and Sergeant
Phil Ramsay [WA Police]. Diagrams were originally drawn by Western Australian
Government Print.
Staff at the Western Australia Police Academy Command & Land Operations Unit who have
contributed to the book include Senior Constable Paul McKee, Senior Constable Ian
Thomson, Senior Constable David Stark, Senior Constable Douglas Fleetwood and
Senior Constable Glen Blackwell.
Thanks are also extended to students of classes conducted by the Western Australia Police
Academy Command & Land Operations Unit and members of the community of Western
Australia who have provided valuable comment and feedback.


M.W. SHERVILL.
SUPERINTENDENT
PRINCIPAL
WESTERN AUSTRALIA POLICE ACADEMY.

June-02
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A I D S T O S U R V I V A L
Contents
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................... 7
Safe Outback Travel ................................................................................................................ 7
PRIOR PREPARATION & PLANNING .....................................................................7
VEHICLE SELECTION ...............................................................................................9
VEHICLE PREPARATION .........................................................................................9
VEHICLE AWARENESS ..........................................................................................11
VEHICLE CHECK LIST............................................................................................12
VEHICLE TOOL KITS ..............................................................................................13
VEHICLE RECOVERY EQUIPMENT .....................................................................13
OFF-ROAD DRIVING TIPS......................................................................................14
OUTBACK TRAVEL CODE OF ETHICS................................................................15
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................. 16
Outback Survival.................................................................................................................... 16
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVIVAL ...........................................................16
ACTIONS BY SURVIVORS .....................................................................................17
SURVIVAL PLANS ...................................................................................................18
PERSONAL SURVIVAL KIT ...................................................................................20
VEHICLE/AIRCRAFT EMERGENCY PACK .........................................................20
Water .................................................................................................................................... 21
THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO SURVIVAL .................................................21
METHODS OF WATER PROCUREMENT .............................................................22
WATER PURIFICATION..........................................................................................26
Shelter................................................................................................................................... 27
TYPES OF SHELTERS..............................................................................................27
Warmth................................................................................................................................. 30
FIRELIGHTING WITHOUT MATCHES .................................................................30
Food...................................................................................................................................... 32
LIVING OFF THE LAND..........................................................................................32
THE FOOD PREFERENTIAL ...................................................................................32
SNARING ANIMALS................................................................................................33
ANIMAL BUTCHERY ..............................................................................................39
PREPARATION & COOKING OF GAME...............................................................39
PRESERVING MEAT................................................................................................40
EDIBLE PLANTS.......................................................................................................41
PLANTS TO AVOID..................................................................................................41
THE TASTE TEST FOR PLANT EDIBILITY..........................................................41
SOME COMMON TYPES OF EDIBLE VEGETATION .........................................42
EDIBLE INSECT ACTIVITY ON PLANTS.............................................................43
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................. 44
Direction Finding.................................................................................................................... 44
WATCH METHOD ....................................................................................................44
BUSHMAN’S METHOD ...........................................................................................44
HAND SPAN METHOD ............................................................................................45
THE SHADOW STICK ..............................................................................................45
THE SOUTHERN CROSS METHOD - AT NIGHT.................................................46
NAVIGATING AT NIGHT WITHOUT A COMPASS.............................................46
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A I D S T O S U R V I V A L
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................. 47
Emergency Procedures .......................................................................................................... 47
PROCEDURE IF LOST..............................................................................................47
ELECTRONIC SAFETY AIDS..................................................................................48
EMERGENCY SIGNALS ..........................................................................................48
BUSHWALKING SAFETY .......................................................................................50
BUSHFIRE SURVIVAL ............................................................................................51
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................. 52
Radio Communications.......................................................................................................... 52
CITIZEN BAND RADIO ...........................................................................................52
OPERATING PROCEDURES ...................................................................................52
EXAMPLES OF TRANSMISSIONS.........................................................................54
EMERGENCY RADIO PROCEDURES ...................................................................55
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................. 56
Creek & River Crossings....................................................................................................... 56
APPRECIATIONS......................................................................................................56
METHODS OF CROSSING CREEKS & RIVERS ...................................................57
CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................................. 58
Bush First Aid......................................................................................................................... 58
CONDITIONS ............................................................................................................58
BASIC LIFE SUPPORT .............................................................................................59
FRACTURES..............................................................................................................60
FRACTURES OF THE SPINE...................................................................................60
SPRAINS ....................................................................................................................60
HEAD INJURY...........................................................................................................61
BURNS AND SCALDS..............................................................................................61
BLEEDING.................................................................................................................62
PAIN............................................................................................................................62
HYSTERIA .................................................................................................................62
ASPHYXIA.................................................................................................................62
INSECT BITES...........................................................................................................63
SNAKE BITE..............................................................................................................63
CUTS AND ABRASIONS .........................................................................................64
BLISTERS ..................................................................................................................64
SPLINTERS ................................................................................................................64
CARE OF FEET..........................................................................................................64
CASUALTY ACTION ...............................................................................................64
HYPOTHERMIA........................................................................................................65
FROST BITE...............................................................................................................65
HYPERTHERMIA......................................................................................................66
SALT DEPLETION....................................................................................................66
WAPA TEAM FIELD FIRST AID KIT.....................................................................67
WAPA FIELD HEADQUARTERS BASE FIRST AID KIT.....................................67
ST JOHN AMBULANCE HIKERS FIRST AID PACK............................................68
RED CROSS HIKING FIRST AID KIT ....................................................................68
ACTIVITY-SPECIFIC FIRST AID KITS..................................................................68
DEALING WITH DEATH .........................................................................................69


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A I D S T O S U R V I V A L
CHAPTER 8 ............................................................................................................. 70
Land Navigation ..................................................................................................................... 70
MAP READING .........................................................................................................70
TERMS USED IN MAP READING ..........................................................................72
NAVIGATION ROUTE PLAN..................................................................................73
NAVIGATION ROUTE PLAN CARD......................................................................74
GRID REFERENCES .................................................................................................75
MEASURING DISTANCES ON A MAP..................................................................76
THE POINTS OF A COMPASS ................................................................................76
NORTH POINTS ........................................................................................................77
The Orienteering Compass................................................................................................... 78
MAGNETIC VARIATION.........................................................................................79
CONTOURS ...............................................................................................................80
DRAWING A SECTION............................................................................................81
PREDICTING WALKING TIME ..............................................................................81
SETTING THE COMPASS TO WALK ON A MAGNETIC BEARING.................81
TO TAKE A MAGNETIC BEARING .......................................................................82
BACK BEARINGS.....................................................................................................82
ALTERING DIRECTION TO AVOID AN OBSTACLE..........................................82
COMPASS ERRORS..................................................................................................82
COMPASS RESECTIONS .........................................................................................83
Global Positioning Systems ................................................................................................. 83
CHAPTER 9 ............................................................................................................. 84
Expedition Skills..................................................................................................................... 84
THE ROLE OF EXPEDITIONS.................................................................................84
EXPEDITION LEADERSHIP....................................................................................84
PRE-WALK CONSIDERATIONS.............................................................................85
THE EXPEDITION PLANNING PROCESS.............................................................86
BRIEFINGS ................................................................................................................86
EXPEDITION PLANS ...............................................................................................86
DE-BRIEFINGS..........................................................................................................87
PRACTICAL BUSHWALKING................................................................................88
JOURNAL WRITING ................................................................................................89
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS ..................................................................................89
PRINCIPLES OF MINIMUM IMPACT CAMPING.................................................90
FOOD AND COOKING.............................................................................................91
WAPA RATION PACK – 8 HOUR FOR 1 PERSON...............................................93
WAPA RATION PACK - 24 HOUR FOR 1 PERSON..............................................94
RECREATIONAL 2 – DAY RATION PACK FOR 1 PERSON...............................95
CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT...............................................................................96
PERSONAL & EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT ..........................................................98
INDIVIDUAL CAMPING EQUIPMENT..................................................................99
GROUP CAMPING EQUIPMENT..........................................................................100
EXPEDITION EQUIPMENT CHECK LIST ...........................................................102
PACKING AND LOAD CARRYING .....................................................................102
CAMPCRAFT...........................................................................................................103
HYGIENE .................................................................................................................104
WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS............................................................................104
WEATHER PATTERNS IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA .........................................105
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A I D S T O S U R V I V A L
C H A P T E R 1
Safe Outback Travel
Adequate preparation before undertaking a journey or accepting employment in the outback
will lessen the chance of jeopardising human life. There have been many cases where loss of
life has resulted from a lack of foresight into the problems involved. The WA Police Service
in it’s mission to create a safer and more secure Western Australia provides a service which is
responsive to community needs and is willing to act as a first point of call for safe outback
travel. Members of the public are encouraged to discuss their trip plans and post notifications
with local police.
PRIOR PREPARATION & PLANNING
There are a number of things to be considered before starting to pack for your trip, these are
known colloquially as the ‘Rule of P’ and are linked to the premise that -
Prior Preparation and Planning Prevents Poor Performance.
Equipment Required
The equipment you are taking must be serviceable and sufficient for the trip. Allow additional
equipment if in doubt. Maps should cover the entire area of the trip.
Radio Communications
For close range communication between vehicles a citizen band UHF or VHF radio may be
used, however for long-range radio communication a HF radio is essential, these can be hired
from communications suppliers at reasonable rates. Whilst travelling in the outback it is good
practice to set up a communication schedule with the Royal Flying Doctor Service and
contact them daily advising them who you are and where you are.
Satellite/Digital Telephone Communications
It is now possible to ensure telephone communications in the outback with the introduction of
a system of digital telephones that allow the user to call on his/her digital phone and be
connected automatically to a satellite system with no time delay if in an area not covered by a
digital network. This system has a saturation system of satellites that download to ground
stations and ensure instantaneous voice communication with no time delay between sending
and receiving.
Terrain to be covered
A map study should be done to ascertain –
• Whether it is accessible by vehicle
• Where the fuel and water sources are located
• What is the best route
• What alternate route could you use if necessary
• What aids to navigation will you have
• What positions of evacuation are available
• Where are the local inhabitants
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A I D S T O S U R V I V A L
Use of Maps
The Western Australian bush is very monotonous with very few landmarks and a lack of
signposts on outback roads. Be wary of spoken directions as they can be misinterpreted and
the wrong track easily taken. In the absence of an official map, try to obtain a rough map
drawn on paper with as many landmarks as possible indicated showing the necessary
distances. Mark your position on the map as you proceed so you can pinpoint your location at
any given time. Do confirm your position at every opportunity.
Weather Conditions
The weather must be considered as many road conditions vary according to the local rainfall.
You should be aware of the changes of season in the area of your trip, this will ensure that
you are going at the best time of year. Check with police or local authorities after rain as
many outback roads can be closed.
Time allowance
You should consider carefully the time and space you are allowing for your trip.
Considerations should include -
• When are you leaving?
• How long will it take?
• Where do you propose stopping to camp?
• When will you arrive?
• Have you allowed a safety margin in case of minor mishaps?
Learn about the country
You should learn as much about the country you are to travel, as possible. This will assist you
if you have to survive in it.
Things to study would be –
• Dangerous animals and reptiles
• Insects, flies and mosquitoes
• Prickle bushes and any poisonous or discomfiting plants
• Any edible wild foods and bush tucker
• Available water sources
• Caves, mine-workings, holes and local problems
• Diseases to guard against
Notifications
Before leaving on a journey through remote areas always notify friends, relatives, station
owners or police of the following information –
1. Estimated time of departure [ETD]
2. Proposed and alternate routes
3. Estimated time of arrival [ETA]
Note:
Don't forget to notify those concerned once you have safely completed the journey.
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A I D S T O S U R V I V A L
VEHICLE SELECTION
Selection of a suitable vehicle for safe outback travel will rely on the load that you are going
to carry. As well as major items of fuel, food and water you may also be carrying camping
equipment, cooking gear, vehicle spares, tools, recovery equipment, an extra spare tyre and
passengers. If you choose to travel 'off road' you will need to be sure your vehicle can
withstand the harsh and rugged conditions you will encounter.
VEHICLE PREPARATION
Your vehicle will not only be your means of transport but if you are travelling 'off road' it will
be your home and of course your biggest aid to survival should something unforeseen happen
to you. As such it must be in first class mechanical condition.
If you are not a mechanic it is best to take the vehicle to one who specialises in this type of
vehicle. Explain the nature of your trip and have them go over the vehicle from top to bottom.
Short courses in vehicle maintenance are offered by most community, TAFE Colleges, etc.
Roof Racks
To carry the intended load you will probably need to install a roof rack. Buy only from a
reputable manufacturer who specialises in your type of vehicle.
Under Body Protection Plates
These are considered necessary by some people for rocky creek crossings, etc. They can be a
problem in spinifex country as after only a few kilometres' spinifex packs tightly under the
plate and creates a definite fire hazard.
Roo and Scrub Bars
These are not essential items for off-road travel but they can be good value should you be
unlucky enough to hit a kangaroo or other large animal.
Spinifex Protection
Some spinifex grows to a height of nearly 2m and the seeds can be drawn into the radiator. At
least 3 layers of fibreglass wire netting should be placed over the front of the vehicle.
Fire Extinguishers
It is good planning to carry at least 5 litres of water in a plastic garden spray for spinifex and
grass fires as well as an extinguisher suitable for electrical or fuel fires.
Tyres
It is important to discuss your tyres with your local tyre dealer before your trip. Ensure you
have the right tyres for the task. Eight ply radials are recommended as a minimum for off-road
use. Two spares plus an additional 2 tubes should be carried.
Wheel Rims
It is easier to change a tyre on a split rim than on a pressed safety rim or alloy rim so stick
with the standard steel split rim if possible otherwise a specially designed bead-breaker should
be carried for removing tyres from rims and replacing them.
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A I D S T O S U R V I V A L
Recovery Equipment
A valuable accessory for getting out of bogs is the exhaust jack. This is a blow-up heavy duty
rubber/canvas bag which is placed under the vehicle and inflated by connecting it to the
exhaust pipe with the engine running. Its purpose is to jack up the vehicle on any surface.
Winches
Types of winches range from hand, electric or power take off. If you have a winch fitted to
your vehicle make sure you know how to use it. Some simple safety rules include -
• Always use a sling around an anchor point rather than forming a loop.
• Never place your hands within 1m of the drum if the winch is operating.
• Always leave six turns of cable on the drum.
• Run the engine when using an electric winch.
• Do not pull if the cable is more than 15º to either side.
Dual Battery Systems
When operating in the outback each battery should be used individually on a daily basis.
When making camp for the night the appropriate drill should be used to ensure that the
alternate battery is fully charged and will start the vehicle in the morning. The battery used for
overnight use [refrigerator, etc.] may go flat.
Fuel
Long-range fuel tanks are an excellent idea but make sure yours is fitted in the approximate
centre of the vehicle between the chassis rails. Use the rear tank first to equalise load. If you
do not have a long-range tank then 20 litre jerry cans are an excellent method of carrying fuel.
If you carry jerry cans make sure they are metal or designed to carry fuel and use tie wire on
all caps to prevent spillage.
Water
Allow 4 to 5 litres of drinking water for each person per day while travelling. If you have a
built in water tank fitted with an external tap it should be fitted with a tap guard and the tap
itself lock-wired when moving.
Emergency Pack
Enough spare food, water and blankets should be included to allow for any unforeseen delays.
Emergency rations should last at least three days on top of your planned trip. A three-day
emergency pack for each person should consist of –
• 6 ready to eat meals
• 4 litres of water
• Emergency blanket
Vehicle Loading
The loading of the vehicle is critical and the vehicle's centre of gravity kept as low as possible
always. Get in the habit of checking whenever you stop.
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