An exploratory study of Hofstede's cross-cultural dimensions in ...

An exploratory study of Hofstede’s cross-cultural
dimensions in construction projects
Low Sui Pheng
National University of Singapore, Singapore
Shi Yuquan
National University of Singapore, Singapore
Keywords
Singapore culture and Chinese culture are
Management, National cultures,
Introduction
different in some aspects, but similar in
Singapore, China,
All social behavior is embedded in a
others. There are too many definitions of
Construction industry
particular context and is connected to other
culture in different research fields. This
Abstract
deeply held values and beliefs. This means
limits one’s understanding of a culture
Singaporean construction firms
that the stakes are high for mismanaging
because the very same aspect of a culture can
have increasingly invested in
cultural differences. Ignoring or mishandling
be many different things to different people
China in recent years. It is,
differences can mean an inability to retain
in different research fields at the same time.
therefore, important for
Singaporean construction firms as
and motivate employees, misreading the
According to Evans et al. (1991), in very
well as their Chinese counterparts
potential of cross-border alliances, marketing
general terms, cross-cultural studies are
to appreciate and understand
and advertising blunders, and failure to build
concerned with differences in factors such as
each other’s cultural differences/
sustainable sources of competitive
educational background, beliefs, art, morals,
similarities. Although Singapore
culture appears to be one based
advantage. Mismanaging cultural differences
customs, laws, economic and political
predominately on Chinese culture,
can render otherwise successful managers
frameworks, etc. Indeed, there is no reason
there remain differences between
and organizations ineffective and frustrated
why the complex whole of ``culture’’ should
the two, which, if not properly
when working across cultures. When
not also include history, economics and
understood, can lead to
ineffectiveness and
successfully managed, however, differences
politics. This statement in fact shows the
misunderstandings. Using the four
in the culture can lead to innovative business
problem of culture definition in cross-
dimensions of a national culture
practices, faster and better learning within
cultural studies. Because a culture is a
established by Hofstede, this
the organization, and sustainable sources of
complex system, cross-cultural studies need a
exploratory study examines what
competitive advantage (Hoecklin, 1996).
constitute Singapore culture and
systems approach. As Hofstede (1980, p. 32)
Chinese culture. Through a survey
Construction projects, as a business
posits:
of Singaporean and Chinese
practice, internationalize step by step. From
Cross-cultural studies presuppose a systems
respondents working in China and
this point of view, any company who wants to
approach, by which I mean that any element
an analysis of Hofstede’s four
carry out or manage a construction project
of the total system called ``culture’’ should be
dimensions of a national culture,
the study extrapolates the cross-
successfully in another country should
eligible for analysis, regardless of the
cultural dimensions brought about
understand the culture of the host country
discipline that usually deals with such
by the two cultures within the
elements. At the level of (national) cultures,
clearly. Even if they do not know what the
context of construction projects.
these are phenomena on all levels:
similarities between the two countries are,
individuals, groups, organizations, or society
they should at least know the differences. In
as a whole may be relevant. There is no
The encouragement and
this context, Singaporean construction
excuse for overlooking any vital factor
comments from the
companies who operate in China must
because it is usually treated in someone else’s
anonymous referees are
clearly appreciate that the Singapore culture
department at the university.
gratefully acknowledged.
and the Chinese culture are different
Their rigorous feedback has
Hofstede (1980) continues to add that
provided the authors with
although both the two cultures appear to be
reference is to be made to cross-cultural or
another fresh perspective to in the same cultural region (Shi, 2001). As
this study.
Low (1997) pointed out, ``while the Chinese
cross-national studies from the disciplines of
construction market will continue to be an
psychology (and, in particular, cross-cultural
attractive one in the foreseeable future, it is
psychology), sociology (particularly
important for international construction
organization sociology), anthropology,
firms to take note of the deeply rooted
political science, economics, geography,
cultural practices and beliefs of their Chinese
history, comparative law, comparative
associates’’ (Low, 1997, p. 105).
medicine, and international market
From the research carried out by Shenkar
research.
Management Decision
and Ronen (1987), one can clearly discern that
Using the four dimensions of a national
40/1 [2002] 7±16
culture established by Hofstede (1980), the
objective of this exploratory study is to
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examine what constitute Singapore culture
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0025-1747.htm
[DOI 10.1108/00251740210423036]
and Chinese culture. Through a survey of
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Singaporean and Chinese respondents
in project management to create a conducive
Low Sui Pheng and
Shi Yuquan
working in China and analysis within the
environment for innovation.
An exploratory study of
context of Hofstede’s (1980) four dimensions
Chan (1997) also demonstrates cross-
Hofstede’s cross-cultural
dimensions in construction
of a national culture, the study explores the
cultural influence on construction project
projects
cross-cultural influences brought about by
management through the identification of
Management Decision
the two cultures within the context of
cultural influence on the resolution of
40/1 [2002] 7±16
construction projects in China.
foreign-related construction disputes in
China. Chan (1997) maintains that the cause
of these disputes is closely related to the
Culture
culture of a society and that the different
methods for resolving disputes are also social
A short review of cross-cultural studies in
phenomena closely associated with a
construction project management is
society’s unique culture.
presented below. Baba (1996) reports that in
Low’s (1995, 1997) view on cross-cultural
transferring and utilizing the systems and
influence is macroscopic in nature. Low
methods developed in the field of
(1995, 1997) analyzed some important cultural
construction management in some advanced
phenomena and concluded how an
Western countries to suit Asian countries’
understanding of these phenomena can help
needs, strong resistance and conflicts come
international corporations from the West
mainly from the differences in cultures. Baba
market their services more effectively as well
(1996) classifies these differences in cultures
as enhance their ability to manage
into three categories:
adversities.
1
traditional organization structure;
To study the cultural influence on
2
managerial differences; and
societies, one needs typologies (Schein, 1985)
3
differences in fundamental concept and
or dimensions (Hofstede, 1980) for analyzing
philosophy which contracts and laws are
the behaviors, the actions and the values of
based on.
their members. According to Ogbor (1990),
He (1995) reports cross-cultural influence
the frameworks used to describe the
from another angle ± risk management.
assumptions that a particular cultural
He (1995) identifies that the risk factors at
society may have about reality, may be
national or regional level in an overseas
grouped into three categories as cultural
construction project can be classified into
dimensions (Hofstede, 1980, 1984, 1985),
three categories:
cultural paradigms (Schein, 1985), cultural
1
political situation;
patterns (Geertz, 1973) or pattern variables
2
economic and financial situation; and
(Parsons and Shils, 1952). The next section
3
social environment.
will briefly examine one of the most widely
He (1995) maintains that the social
quoted frameworks ± cultural dimensions ±
environment problems are most likely to be
as espoused by Hofstede (1980) and which will
caused by cultural differences, such as the
be adopted as the conceptual paradigm for
language barrier, religious inconsistency,
analysis in this study.
differences in traditions, and so on.
Moreover, He (1995) points out that these risk
factors are beyond the control of companies,
Four dimensions of a national
but they can be managed, and are
culture
comparatively predictable and measurable
Hofstede (1980) argues that people carry
by adequate statistics.
``mental programs’’ that are developed and
Ngowi’s (1997) paper reports a study
reinforced through their experience, and that
undertaken in Botswana to determine the
these ``mental programs’’ contain a
impact of cultural background on
component of national culture. After
construction project team members
analyzing the data from more than 40
concerning innovation in the procurement
countries, Hofstede (1980) concludes that
systems adopted. It was found that in the
these mental programs denote the existence
construction projects in which team
of four underlying value dimensions along
members were from different cultural
which these countries could be positioned
background, there were inhibitions to
into culture areas (Hofstede, 1980). These four
innovation compared to the ones in which
dimensions are (Hofstede, 1980, 1983, 1984,
the team members had similar cultural
1985):
background. Ngowi (1997) concludes that the
1 power distance, i.e. the extent of power
cultural background of project team
inequality among members of an
members should be taken into consideration
organizational society;
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2
uncertainty avoidance, i.e. the extent to
Because Singapore is predominately an
Low Sui Pheng and
Shi Yuquan
which members of an organizational
English-speaking country while China is
An exploratory study of
society feel threatened by and try to avoid
predominately a Chinese-speaking country,
Hofstede’s cross-cultural
dimensions in construction
future uncertainty or ambiguous
two different sets of questionnaire were
projects
situations;
prepared for this purpose. The English
Management Decision
3
individualism and collectivism, which
version and Chinese version of the
40/1 [2002] 7±16
describes the relationship between the
questionnaire were used for the Singaporean
individual and the collectivity that is
and Chinese respondents respectively. Back
reflected in the way people live together;
translation was adopted in preparing these
and
two sets of questionnaire to ensure that
4
masculinity and femininity, i.e. the extent
translation problems concerning
of roles division between sexes to which
measurement scales are avoided. The
people in a society put different emphasis
English version of the questionnaire was
on work goals and assertiveness as
first prepared, followed by the Chinese
opposed to personal goals and nurturance.
version. The second author first translated
These four dimensions are based on four
the questionnaire into Chinese, and then
fundamental issues in human societies
discussed the Chinese version with the first
within which every society has to find its
author who is effectively bilingual. After
particular answers. According to Hofstede
revising the Chinese version according to the
(1980), they represent the basic elements of
first author’s suggestions, the second author
common structure in the cultural systems of
tested it on those colleagues in the university
the countries. Thus, they provide an
who are research scholars like him. Most of
important framework not only for analyzing
them had working experience in
national culture, but also for considering the
construction management and are bilingual.
effects of cultural differences on management
The second author further revised the survey
and organization. This framework is
module following their evaluation. The
especially useful for understanding people’s
revised Chinese version of the questionnaire
conceptions of an organization, the
was then translated back into English and
mechanisms that are considered appropriate
compared with the English version of the
in controlling and coordinating the activities
questionnaire that was completed earlier.
within it, and the roles and relations of its
Slight modifications to the two sets of
members (Hoecklin, 1996).
questionnaire were then undertaken to
ensure that their measurement scales were
comparable. After further discussions with
Research methodology
the first author, the two sets of questionnaire
were finally completed. Details concerning
This paper compares Chinese culture and
the preparation of the questionnaires are
Singapore culture in detail by analyzing the
explained elsewhere (Shi, 2001). Through the
data obtained from the fieldwork. The two
above procedures, it is believed that the final
cultures are compared following the four
version of the survey form is satisfactory in
dimensions of Hofstede’s (1980) mentioned
terms of similarity to the original version
earlier, i.e. power distance, uncertainty
advocated by Hofstede (1980).
avoidance, individualism/collectivism and
A total of 84 respondents from Guangzhou
masculinity/femininity. The comparisons
and Wuhan in China were selected to take
provide an insightful view of the differences
and similarities of the two cultures. The
part in the survey in early 2000. They were
consequences of the differences between
involved with the Guangzhou Master Golf
Singapore culture and Chinese culture are
Yard Project and the Wuhan Yangtze Plaza
then explored from an organizational point of
Project respectively. Based on convenience
view.
sampling, these two projects were chosen
The data for this study are obtained
because of the contacts of both the authors in
through two questionnaire survey forms
Singapore and China. The two projects were
(English and Chinese versions). Some of the
undertaken by a Singapore-based
questions are modified from the value survey
construction firm (ST Construction Private
module in English developed by Hofstede
Ltd) which the second author has had the
(1980). The items included in the
opportunity to work with earlier while in
questionnaire for this study are shown in the
China. Of the respondents, 43 were Chinese;
Appendix, which also highlights items that
while the other 41 respondents were
were additional to Hofstede’s (1980) value
Singaporeans. All the respondents were
survey module. This value survey module
construction professionals with tertiary
was recommended by Hofstede (1980) for
education (at least a diploma) and have had
future cross-cultural survey studies. The
site experience. Table I shows the detailed
original value survey module was in English.
information of their gender and age.
[ 9 ]

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can determine the behavior of S and to which
Low Sui Pheng and
Table I
Shi Yuquan
S can determine the behavior of B’ .
Profile of survey respondents
An exploratory study of
According to Hofstede (1980), the power
Hofstede’s cross-cultural
China
Singapore
distance norm can be used for characterizing
dimensions in construction
projects
cultures. Hofstede (1980) computed the power
Number of respondents
43
41
Management Decision
distance index (PDI) on the basis of the
Sex
40/1 [2002] 7±16
country mean scores for the three questions:
Male
32
29
1 Non-managerial employees’ perception
Female
11
12
that employees are afraid to disagree with
Age (years)
their managers.
21-30
26
33
2 Subordinates’ perception that their boss
31-40
9
6
tends to take decisions in an autocratic (1)
41-50
2
2
or persuasive/paternalistic (2) way.
> 50
6
±
3 Subordinates’ preference for anything but
a consultative (3) style of decision-making
Respondents from China were surveyed
in their boss: that is for an autocratic (1), a
using the Chinese version of the
persuasive/paternalistic (2), or a
questionnaire, and respondents from
democratic (4) style.
Singapore were surveyed using the English
version of the questionnaire.
The formula Hofstede (1980) used to compute
The survey was administered by the
the country’s PDI is given below:
second author in China where the
PDI = 135 ± 25
(mean score employ afraid)
questionnaires were handed to all the
+ (% perceived manager 1 + 2)
respondents personally. The questionnaires
± (% preferred manager 3).
were collected back immediately after the
It uses mean scores on a five-point scale
respondents had completed them. This
(1 = very frequently, 5 = very seldom) for
ensured that all the questionnaires were fully
question (1) and percentage values for
completed with no invalid responses.
questions (2) and (3). In this research, the PDI
values for Singapore and China are computed
by using the above formula. The resulting
Data analysis and findings
values are shown in Table II.
The values in Table II show that the
Most questions in the questionnaire use the
culture of Singapore has a larger power
five-point answer scales (Hofstede, 1980). A
distance than the culture of China. This
majority use the ordinal scale, which means
means in Singapore, superiors and
that the answer categories show natural and
subordinates consider each other as unequal;
unambiguous rank order from less important
the hierarchical system is felt to be based on
(unsatisfactory) to more important
some existential inequality; power is the
(satisfactory). A few questions do not have
basic fact of society that antedates good or
ordinal scales but only nominal scales (no
evil and where its legitimacy is irrelevant;
natural rank order for all answers).
indigenous organizations centralize power
According to Hofstede (1980), for further
more and subordinates are expected to be
processing of the information contained in
told what to do; and superiors are believed to
the frequency distributions, it is often
be entitled to privileges in Singapore.
necessary to reduce the information to a
single number per frequency distribution.
2. Calculation of uncertainty avoidance
This can be done by dichotomizing or by
index
using a measure of central tendency.
The second dimension of national culture
Following this direction, in the analysis of
espoused by Hofstede (1980) is uncertainty
the data, the median as a measure of central
avoidance. According to Hofstede (1980),
tendency for the questions with ordinal
uncertainty avoidance measures the extent
scales will be used. In the case of questions
to which members of an organizational
with different scales, the frequency
society feel threatened by and try to avoid
distributions at the most meaningful point
future uncertainty or ambiguous situations.
will be dichotomized.
Hofstede (1980) points out that the
The next section presents how the indices
uncertainty avoidance index (UAI) can be
for the four dimensions postulated by
Hofstede (1980) are calculated.
Table II
1. Calculation of power distance index
Power distance index (PDI) values by country
Hofstede’s (1980) definition of the power
Country
PDI
distance is ``the power distance between a
Singapore
114
boss B and a subordinate S in a hierarchy is
China
64
the difference between the extent to which B
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computed on the basis of the country mean
computed based on the standardized scores of
Low Sui Pheng and
Shi Yuquan
scores for the following three questions:
the 15 work goal questions as shown in
An exploratory study of
1
Rule orientation. Agreement with the
Table IV. Through a factor analysis, Hofstede
Hofstede’s cross-cultural
statement ``Company rules should not be
(1980) found that almost one-half of the
dimensions in construction
projects
broken ± even when the employee thinks
variance in country mean scores on the 15
Management Decision
it is the company’s best interest’’.
questions could be accounted for by just two
40/1 [2002] 7±16
2
Employment stability. Employee’s
factors. Hofstede (1980) labeled the first of
statement that they intend to continue
these factors as ` individual-collective’’, and
with the company (1) for two years at
the second as ``masculinity-femininity’’. The
most, (2) from two to five years.
` individual-collective’’ is mainly composed of
3
Stress. As expressed in the mean answer
the following six work goals:
to the question ``How often do you feel
1 personal time;
nervous or tense at work?’’
2 freedom;
The formula Hofstede (1980) used to compute
3 challenge;
the country’s UAI is given below:
4 use of skills;
UAI = 300 ± 30
(mean score rule
5 physical conditions; and
orientation)
6 training.
± (% intending to stay less than five
The ` masculinity-femininity’’ is composed of
years)
the following work goals: manager,
± 40
(mean stress score).
cooperation, desirable area, employment
In this research, the UAI values for
security, challenge, advancement,
Singapore and China are computed by using
recognition and earnings. Hofstede (1980) has
the above formula. The resulting values are
used the country factor scores on
shown in Table III.
``individual-collective’’ as a basis for
The values in Table III show that
computing the IDV and the country factor
Singapore has a low index value and China
scores on ``masculinity-femininity’’ as a basis
has a high index value. This means that in
for computing the MAS.
Singapore, people feel less threatened by
However, in this exploratory research, the
ambiguous situations. Emotions are shown
IDV values for Singapore and China cannot
less in public. Younger people are
be computed by using the above method. This
trustworthy. People are willing to take risks
is because there are only two cases
in life. The authorities are there to serve the
(countries) in this research and to do a factor
citizens. Conflicts and competition can be
analysis on such a small number of cases is
contained on the level of fair play and are
untenable (Shi, 2001).
used constructively.
To compute the IDV and MAS values, the
study first standardized the scores of these
3. Calculation of individualism index (IDV)
work goals according to what Hofstede (1980)
and masculinity index (MAS)
has done. Then, the study built two multiple
The other two dimensions of national culture
linear regression models by using the data
espoused by Hofstede (1980) are individualism
presented by Hofstede (1980) through SPSS.
and masculinity. According to Hofstede (1980),
Finally, the study computed the IDV and
individualism describes the relationship
MAS values of Singapore and China on the
between the individual and the collectivity
basis of these two multiple linear regression
which prevails in a given society. Masculinity
models by using the standardized scores
describes the extent of roles division between
listed in Table V.
sexes to which people in a society put different
emphasis on work goals and assertiveness as
4. Standardizing the scores of the work
opposed to personal goals and nurturance.
goals
Unlike the PDI and uncertainty avoidance
To standardize the mean scores for each
index, the IDV and MAS were arrived at in a
country across the 21 goals, the research
different way (Hofstede, 1980). The PDI and
follows the methods used by Hofstede (1980).
uncertainty avoidance index were each based
The formula used to standardize the raw
on the country means for three questions
mean scores is shown below:
respectively. The IDV and MAS were
standardized score ˆ500 ¡ 100
Table III
£ …observation
Uncertainty avoidance index (UAI) values by
¡ mean†=standard …1†
country
deviation
where observation, mean, standard deviation
Country
UAI
denote, respectively, the raw mean score of a
Singapore
24
particular work goal of a country, the overall
China
35
mean of raw mean scores across the 21 goals
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Low Sui Pheng and
Table IV
Shi Yuquan
Work goals
An exploratory study of
Hofstede’s cross-cultural
Number
Short name
Full questionnaire wording
dimensions in construction
projects
D1a
Personal time
Have sufficient time left for your personal or family life
Management Decision
D2a
Challenge
Have challenging tasks to do, from which you can get a personal
40/1 [2002] 7±16
sense of accomplishment
D3
No stress
Have little tension and stress on the job
D4a
Physical conditions
Have good physical working conditions (good ventilation and
lighting, adequate work space, etc.)
D5a
Manager (superior)
Have a good working relationship with your direct superior
D6a
Employment security
Have security of employment
D7a
Freedom
Have considerable freedom to adopt your own approach to the job
D8a
Cooperation
Work with people who cooperate well with one another
D9
Be consulted
Be consulted by your direct superior in his/her decisions
D10a
Contribution
Make a real contribution to the success of your company or
organization
D11a
Earnings
Have an opportunity for higher earnings
D12a
Desirable area
Live in an area desirable to you and your family
D13a
Promotion (advancement)
Have an opportunity for advancement to high-level jobs
D14
Variety
Have an element of variety and adventure in the job
D15
Company
Work in a prestigious, successful company or organization
D16
Help others
Have an opportunity for helping other people
D17
Clear requirements
Work in a well-defined job situation where the requirements are clear
D18a
Benefits
Have good fringe benefits
D19a
Use of skills
Fully use your skills and abilities on the job
D20a
Recognition
Get the recognition you deserve when you do a good job
D21a
Training
Have training opportunity to improve your skills and knowledge or to
learn new skills and knowledge
Note: a Questions used by Hofstede (1980)
Table V
of a country, and the standard deviation of
Country raw mean scores of work goals
raw mean scores across the 21 goals of a
country.
Number
Work goals
China
Singapore
The raw mean scores of these work goals of
D1
Personal time
2.6512
2.0000
Singapore and China are listed in Table V.
D2
Challenge
2.2558
2.2927
The resulting standardized scores are listed
D3
No stress
3.3023
2.7561
in Table VI. In Table V, lower scores signify
D4
Physical conditions
2.2791
2.2195
more important work goals. However, in
D5
Manager (superior)
1.7674
1.5122
Table VI, lower standardized scores signify
D6
Employment security
1.8372
1.9024
less important work goals.
D7
Freedom
2.0233
1.9756
D8
Cooperation
2.0698
1.7073
5. Building two multiple linear regression
D9
Be consulted
2.4884
2.2195
models
D10
Contribution
2.0000
2.1951
As mentioned before, according to Hofstede
D11
Earnings
1.7907
1.8780
(1980), the ``individual-collective’’ dimension
is mainly composed of the following six work
D12
Desirable area
2.1163
2.1463
goals:
D13
Promotion (advancement)
2.2558
1.8049
1 personal time;
D14
Variety
3.1628
2.1463
2 freedom;
D15
Company
1.8372
2.4146
3 challenge;
D16
Help others
2.3488
2.6585
4 use of skills;
D17
Clear requirements
1.6977
2.3659
5 physical conditions; and
D18
Benefits
2.2326
2.2927
6 training.
D19
Use of skills
1.6744
2.0976
D20
Recognition
1.7907
1.9512
The ` masculinity-femininity’’ dimension is
D21
Training
1.8372
2.0488
composed of the following work goals:
Mean
2.1628
2.1231
manager, cooperation, desirable area,
Standard deviation
0.4459
0.2952
employment security, challenge,
advancement, recognition and earnings.
Note: Lower scores signify more important work goals
Based on the above facts, the present study
[ 12 ]

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built two multiple linear regression models
are more or less linearly related to the
Low Sui Pheng and
Shi Yuquan
that can be used to compute the IDV and MAS
dependent variable. This means that these
An exploratory study of
values: IDV multiple linear regression model
variables can be used in a multiple linear
Hofstede’s cross-cultural
dimensions in construction
and MAS multiple linear regression model.
regression model. Through SPSS, a MAS
projects
IDV multiple linear regression model
multiple linear regression model was
Management Decision
To generate a regression model that can be
generated as shown in equation (3).
40/1 [2002] 7±16
used to compute the IDV values, the study
MAS ˆ 64:318 ¡ 0:067 £ Cooperation
uses personal time, freedom, challenge, use of
¡ 0:065 £ Desirable area
skills, physical conditions and training as
independent variables and IDV as dependent
¡ 0:029 £ Employment security
variable. An analysis using the SPSS shows
‡ 0:091 £ Challenge
…3†
that the independent variables are more or
‡ 0:056 £ Promotion
less linearly related to the dependent variable.
¡ 0:182 £ Manager
This means that these variables can be used in
‡ 0:097 £ Earnings
a multiple linear regression model. Through
SPSS, an IDV multiple linear regression
‡ 0:056 £ Recognition
model was generated as shown in equation (2).
IDV ˆ 78:921 ‡ 0:071 £ Challenge
6. IDV and MAS values of Singapore and
¡ 0:134 £ Training
China
By putting the standardized scores of work
‡ 0:089 £ Freedom
goals into equations (2) and (3), the IDV and
¡ 0:126 £ Physical conditions …2† MAS values of Singapore and China were
¡ 0:093 £ Use of skills
obtained. The resulting IDV and MAS values
‡ 0:13 £ Personaltime
are listed in Table VII.
The IDV of Singapore is higher than that of
MAS multiple linear regression model
China. This means people in Singapore tend
To generate a regression model that can be
to think of themselves as ``I’’ and tend to
used to compute the MAS values, the study
classify themselves and each other by
used manager, cooperation, desirable area,
individual characteristics, rather than by
employment security, challenge,
group membership.
advancement, recognition and earnings as
The MAS of Singapore is lower than that of
independent variables and MAS as
China which means in Singapore, people
dependent variable. An analysis using the
show more concerns to personal goals
SPSS shows that the independent variables
(friendly atmosphere, getting along well with
the boss and others, etc.).
Table VI
Country standardized scores of work goals
Conclusion
Number
Work goals
China
Singapore
Through the above statistical analysis and
D1
Personal time
390
542
mathematical computing, the index values of
D2
Challenge
479
443
the four cultural dimensions of Singapore
D3
No stress
244
286
culture and Chinese culture were obtained.
D4
Physical conditions
474
467
These are summarized in Table VIII and
D5
Manager (superior)
589
707
discussed below. According to Hofstede’s
D6
Employment security
573
575
D7
Freedom
531
550
(1980) research and the cultural dimension
D8
Cooperation
521
641
indices computed above, the consequences of
D9
Be consulted
427
467
national differences for organizations are
D10
Contribution
537
476
summarized in Table IX. This shows the
D11
Earnings
583
583
differences between organizations from
D12
Desirable area
510
492
Singapore and China and provides a guide
D13
Promotion (advancement)
479
608
for managers to analyze cross-cultural
D14
Variety
276
492
influences within the context of construction
D15
Company
573
410
projects in China. Managers should take
D16
Help others
458
319
D17
Clear requirements
604
418
Table VII
D18
Benefits
484
443
IDV and MAS values by country
D19
Use of skills
610
509
D20
Recognition
583
558
Country
IDV
MAS
D21
Training
573
525
Singapore
53
6
Note: Lower scores signify less important work goals
China
18
34
[ 13 ]

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Indigenous organizations centralize power
Low Sui Pheng and
Table VIII
Shi Yuquan
more and subordinates are expected to be
Four index values by country
An exploratory study of
told what to do. Superiors are believed to be
Hofstede’s cross-cultural
Country
PDI
UAI
IDV
MAS
dimensions in construction
entitled to privileges.
projects
Singapore
114
24
53
6
However, in China, subordinates and
Management Decision
China
64
35
18
34
superiors consider each other as more equal;
40/1 [2002] 7±16
the hierarchical system is just an inequality
these differences into consideration when
managing construction projects in China.
of roles, established for convenience and
which may change depending on the
Power distance
circumstances. Organizations have a
The PDI of Singapore is higher than that of
tendency to become decentralized, with
China. In Singapore, superiors and
flatter hierarchies and a limited number of
subordinates consider each other as unequal;
supervisory personnel. Privileges for the top
the hierarchical system is felt to be based on
some existential inequality; power is the
ranks are essentially undesirable, and
basic fact of society that antedates good or
superiors are expected to be accessible to
evil and where its legitimacy is irrelevant.
their subordinates.
Table IX
Consequences of national differences for organizations by country
Consequences for organizations
Singapore
China
Consequences of power distance index
Greater centralization
Less centralization
Tall organization pyramids
Flatter organization pyramids
Large proportion of supervisory personnel
Smaller proportion of supervisory personnel
Large wage differential
Smaller wage differential
Low qualification of lower strata
High qualification of lower strata
White-collar jobs valued more than blue-collar jobs
Manual work same status as clerical work
Consequences of uncertainty avoidance index
Managers more involved in strategy
Managers less involved in strategy
Managers more interpersonal oriented and flexible
Managers more task-oriented and consistent in their
in their style
style
Managers more willing to make individual and risky
Managers less willing to make individual and risky
decisions
decisions
High labor turnover
Lower labor turnover
More ambitious employees
Less ambitious employees
Lower satisfaction scores
Higher satisfaction scores
Less power through control of uncertainty
More power through control of uncertainty
Consequences of individualism index
Involvement of individual with organizations primarily
Involvement of individuals with organizations primarily
calculative
moral
Organizations are not expected to look after
Employees expect organizations to look after them
employees from the cradle to the grave
like a family ± and can become very alienated if
Organization has moderate influence on member’s
organization dissatisfies them
well-being
Organization has great influence on member’s
Employees are expected to defend their own interests
well-being
Policies and practices should allow individual initiative
Employees expect organization to defend their
Promotion from inside and outside
interests
Promotion on market value
Policies and practices based on loyalty and sense of
Managers try to be up-to-date and endorse modern
duty
management ideas
Promotion from inside
Policies and practices apply to all
Promotion on seniority
Less concern with fashion in managerial ideas
Policies and practices vary according to relations
Consequences of masculinity index
Organizations should not interfere with people’s
Organizational interests are a legitimate reason for
private lives
interfering with people’s private lives
Lower job stress
Higher job stress
Appeal of job restructuring permitting group
Appeal of restructuring permitting individual
integration
achievement
[ 14 ]

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Low Sui Pheng and
Uncertainty avoidance
in Guangzhou, which because of its close
Shi Yuquan
On uncertainty avoidance, Singapore has a
proximity to Hong Kong, is arguably one of
An exploratory study of
low index value and China has a high index
the most cosmopolitan parts of China long
Hofstede’s cross-cultural
value. In Singapore, people feel less
dimensions in construction
influenced by the western world. Intra-
projects
threatened by ambiguous situations.
cultural differences are bound to exist in a
Management Decision
Emotions are shown less in public. Younger
country as vast and as diverse as China in
40/1 [2002] 7±16
people are trustworthy. People are willing to
terms of ethnicities. These two limitations
take risks in life. The authorities are there to
should be taken into account when
serve the citizens. Conflicts and competition
considering the findings of this study. It is
can be contained on the level of fair play and
hoped that a more extensive study covering a
are used constructively.
much larger sample size could be conducted
In China, people tend to establish more
in the near future.
formal rules, reject deviant ideas and
behavior, accept the possibility of absolute
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Appendix. Items included in questionnaire
Table AI
Dimensions
Items
Power distance index
Non-managerial employees’ perception that employees are afraid to disagree
with their managersa
Subordinates’ perception that their boss tends to take decisions in an
autocratic or persuasive/paternalistic waya
Subordinates’ preference for anything but a consultative style of decision-
making in their boss: that is for an autocratic, a persuasive/paternalistic,
or a democratic stylea
Uncertainty avoidance index
Rule orientation: agreement with the statement that ``company rules should
not be broken even when the employee thinks it is in the company’s
best interest’ a
Employment stability: employee’s statement that they intend to continue
with the company for two years at most or from two to five yearsa
Stress as expressed in the mean answer to the question, ``how often do
you feel nervous or tense at work?’ a
Individualism index and
Have sufficient time left for your personal or family lifea
masculinity index
Have challenging tasks to do, from which you can get a personal sense
of accomplishment
Have little tension and stress on the job
Have good physical working conditions (good ventilation and lighting,
adequate working space, etc.)a
Have a good working relationship with your direct superiora
Have security of employmenta
Have considerable freedom to adopt your own approach to the joba
Work with people who cooperate well with one anothera
Be consulted by your direct superior in his/her decisions
Make a real contribution to the success of your company or organizationa
Have an opportunity for higher earningsa
Live in an area desirable to you and your familya
Have an opportunity for advancement to high-level jobsa
Have an element of variety and adventure in the job
Work in a prestigious, successful company or organization
Have an opportunity to help others
Work in a well-defined job situation where the requirements are clear
Have good fringe benefitsa
Fully use your skills and abilities on the joba
Get the recognition you deserve when you do a good joba
Have training opportunity to improve your skills and knowledge or to learn
new skills and knowledgea
Note: a Indicates questions used by Hofstede (1980)
Application questions
1
How do cross-cultural differences affect
3 How are cultural differences between
international construction projects?
China and Singapore quantified?
2
What cultural dimensions should
businesses take into consideration in the
growing China market?
[ 16 ]

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