Animal Abuse and Youth Violence

U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
September 2001
Animal Abuse and
A Message From OJJDP
Youth Violence
Although legal definitions of animal
abuse vary, it is a crime in every
State, and many States have enacted
laws establishing certain forms of cru-
Frank R. Ascione
elty to animals as felony offenses. The
forms of abuse to which animals may
The past two decades have witnessed a
emphasized throughout, and a list of na-
be subjected are similar to the forms
resurgence of interest in the relation
tional organizations with programs relat-
of abuse children experience, includ-
between cruelty to animals, or animal
ed to the link between animal abuse and
ing physical abuse, serious neglect,
abuse, and serious violent behavior, espe-
other violent behavior is also provided.
and even psychological abuse.
cially among youthful offenders. As an
This Bulletin does not suggest that attend-
illustration, a recent study by Verlinden
It has been said that violence begets
ing to animal abuse is a panacea for deal-
(2000) of 9 school shootings in the United
violence, but what do we know about
ing with the challenges of identifying and
States (from Moses Lake, WA, in 1996 to
the nature of the relationship between
addressing youth violence. Violent behav-
Conyers, GA, in 1999) reported that 5 (45
the abuse of animals and aggressive
ior is multidimensional and multideter-
percent) of the 11 perpetrators had histo-
behavior towards human beings?
mined, and its developmental course is
ries of alleged animal abuse. The most
still the subject of concerted research
This Bulletin describes psychiatric,
well-documented example was the case of
psychological, and criminal research
investigation (Moffitt, 1997). However, it
Luke Woodham who, in the April before
linking animal abuse to violence per-
is argued here that animal abuse has re-
his October 1997 murder of his mother
petrated by juveniles and adults.
ceived insufficient attention—in fact, is
and two schoolmates, tortured and killed
sometimes explicitly excluded (e.g., Stone
Particular attention is focused on the
his own pet dog (Ascione, 1999).
and Kelner, 2000)—as one of a number of
prevalence of cruelty to animals by
This Bulletin reports on the psychiatric,
“red flags,” warning signs, or sentinel be-
children and adolescents and to the
psychological, and criminological research
haviors that could help identify youth at
role of animal abuse as a possible
linking animal abuse to juvenile- and adult-
risk for perpetrating interpersonal violence
symptom of conduct disorder. In ad-
perpetrated violence. It addresses the
(a relation first noted in the psychiatric
dition, the motivations and etiology
challenge of defining animal abuse and
literature by Pinel in 1809) and youth who
underlying the maltreatment of ani-
examines the difficulty of deriving accurate
have themselves been victimized.
mals are thoroughly reviewed.
incidence and prevalence data for this
The abuse of sentient creatures de-
behavior. It also explores the relationships
mands our attention. The Bulletin
Defining Animal Abuse
between animal abuse and conduct disor-
includes recommendations to curb
der (CD), analyzes the motives of child
All 50 States have legislation relating to
such cruelty, while providing contact
and adolescent animal abusers, and con-
animal abuse. Most States categorize it as
information for additional resources
siders the contexts that may lead to the
a misdemeanor offense, and 30 States also
concerned with violence perpetrated
emergence of animal abuse as a symptom
have instituted felony-level statutes for
against animals and people.
of psychological disorder. (Although a few
certain forms of cruelty to animals. How-
It is our hope that the information that
studies examine the neurobiological corre-
ever, legal definitions of animal abuse, and
this Bulletin offers will contribute to
lates of cruelty to animals—see Lockwood
even the types of animals that are covered
reducing both forms of violence.
and Ascione, 1998—that topic is beyond
by these statutes, differ from State to State
the scope of this review.) The importance
(Ascione and Lockwood, 2001; Frasch et
of including information about animal
al., 1999; Lacroix, 1998). The research lit-
abuse in assessments of youth at risk of
erature also fails to yield a consistent
committing interpersonal violence is
definition of animal abuse or cruelty to

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animals; however, the following definition
had been screened for the absence of
personal communication, July 17, 1992). In
captures features common to most at-
mental health referrals in the past year.
their statistical analysis of individual ACQ
tempts to define this behavior: “socially
The referred children were drawn from
items, Achenbach and colleagues noted
unacceptable behavior that intentionally
18 mental health clinics across the United
that cruelty to animals was significantly
causes unnecessary pain, suffering, or
States. Most of the referred children were
(p<0.01) higher for referred youth, boys,
distress to and/or death of an animal”
being evaluated for outpatient mental
and younger children.
(Ascione, 1993:228).
health services. Potential candidates for
The data in figure 1 illustrate the relatively
inclusion in the nonreferred and referred
This definition excludes practices that may
low frequency of cruelty to animals in the
groups were excluded if they were mental-
cause harm to animals yet are socially con-
nonreferred sample (0–13 percent) in com-
ly retarded, had a serious physical illness,
doned (e.g., legal hunting, certain agricul-
parison with the referred sample (7–34
or had a handicap.
tural and veterinary practices). Because
percent). Eighteen to twenty-five percent
the status of a particular animal may vary
One item on the ACQ asks the respondent
of referred boys between the ages of 6 and
from one culture to another, the definition
whether their child or adolescent has been
16 were reported to have been cruel to
takes into account the social contexts that
“cruel to animals” in the past 2 months.
animals, and the data suggest this item’s
help determine what is considered animal
Respondents can answer using the follow-
incidence has greater stability through
abuse. For the purposes of this review, the
ing 4-point scale: 0 = never or not at all
childhood and adolescence for boys than
animals that are victims of abuse are most
true (as far as you know), 1 = once in a
for girls.
often vertebrates because this is the cate-
while or just a little, 2 = quite often or
Data on the prevalence of cruelty to ani-
gory of animals to which are attributed
quite a lot, or 3 = very often or very much.
mals are also provided in the manuals for
the greatest capacity for experiencing and
Figure 1 shows the percentage of care-
the Child Behavior Checklist (CBC), per-
displaying pain and distress.
givers, for each age group, gender, and
haps one of the most widely used check-
referral status, that reported the presence
The forms of abuse to which animals may
lists for child behavior problems, which is
of cruelty to animals (David Jacobowitz,
be subjected are parallel to the forms of
available in separate versions for 2- to 3-
Statistician Programmer, Achenbach Sys-
child maltreatment. Animals may be physi-
year-olds (Achenbach, 1992) and 4- to 18-
tem for Empirical Behavioral Assessment,
cally or sexually abused, may be seriously
year-olds (Achenbach, 1991). The cruelty
College of Medicine, University of Vermont,
neglected, and, some might argue, may be
psychologically abused.
Figure 1: Percentage of Youth Reported by Caregivers To Have Been
Prevalence of Cruelty
Cruel to Animals, by Offender’s Age, Gender, and Referral
to Animals by Children
Status
and Adolescents
Because cruelty to animals is not moni-
35
tored systematically in national crime
reporting systems (Howard Snyder, per-
30
sonal communication, January 22, 2001),
25
researchers must rely on data from studies
in developmental psychology and psycho-
20
pathology to estimate the prevalence of
this problem behavior in samples of youth.
15
A number of assessment instruments that
outh (%)
Y
address child behavior problems include
10
a question about cruelty to animals. How-
5
ever, “cruelty” is not always explicitly de-
fined for the respondent, so it is difficult
0
to determine the exact behaviors that are
4–5
6–7
8–9
10–11
12–13
14–15
16
being reported.
Age (years)
Using the Achenbach-Conners-Quay Behav-
ior Checklist (ACQ), Achenbach and col-
Boys referred to mental
Girls referred to mental
leagues (1991) collected parent or guardian
health services
health services
reports of problem behaviors for 2,600
Boys not referred to
Girls not referred to
boys and girls ages 4 to 16 who had been
mental health services
mental health services
referred to mental health clinics and a
control group of 2,600 boys and girls of
the same age. The nonreferred children
Note: Data show caregivers’ responses to a question asking whether their child or adolescent
constituted a representative sample of the
had been cruel to animals in the past 2 months.
U.S. population, based on ethnicity, socio-
economic status, and place of residence
Source: Achenbach, T.M., Howell, C.T., Quay, H.C., and Conners, C.K. 1991. National survey
of problems and competencies among four- to sixteen-year-olds. Monographs of the Society
(urban/suburban/rural and national region
for Research in Child Development 56: Serial No. 255.
[e.g., Northeast, West]). These children
2

---

to animals item on the CBC (which uses a
Limitations of Adult
pages 4–5 for a more indepth discussion
“past 2 months” timeframe for 2- to 3-year-
Reports on Children’s
of the link between CD and animal abuse.)
olds and a “past 6 months” timeframe for
Figure 3 compares parent/guardian re-
4- to 18-year-olds) is scored on a 3-point
Cruelty to Animals
ports of cruelty to animals with youth self-
scale: 0 = not true (as far as you know),
Both the ACQ and CBC rely on caretakers’
reports. These data suggest that parents
1 = somewhat or sometimes true, or 2 =
reports, and comparable information from
and guardians may seriously underesti-
very true or often true. Referred and non-
youth’s self-reports of cruelty to animals
mate cruelty to animals, with boys self-
referred boys and girls can be compared
is not available. The reliance on caretak-
reporting this behavior at 3.8 times the
for each of three age groups. These data
ers’ reports, however, could be problem-
rate of parents/guardians and girls at 7.6
are presented in figure 2. In this figure,
atic because animal abuse may be per-
times the parent/guardian rate. Similar
data on acts of vandalism committed by
formed covertly (a characteristic shared
underestimates appear for two other CD
the two older age groups are included for
with youth vandalism and firesetting) and
symptoms, vandalism and firesetting, that
comparison. Again, cruelty to animals is
caretakers may be unaware of the pres-
may often be covert and, therefore, un-
more often reported for younger children
ence of this behavior in their children.
known to or undetected by parents or
and boys, especially those referred for
Offord, Boyle, and Racine (1991) surveyed
guardians (see figure 4).
mental health services. Figure 2 also sug-
a nonclinical sample of 1,232 Canadian
A recent study of a nonclinical sample
gests that reported rates of cruelty to ani-
parents/guardians and their 12- to 16-
of youth (1,333 boys and 837 girls; mean
mals (for youth ages 4 and older) are high-
year-old boys and girls. They asked re-
age, 14.6 years) in Alexandria, Egypt
er than or similar to reported rates of
spondents (both parents/guardians and
(Youssef, Attia, and Kamel, 1999), also
vandalism, a problem behavior about
adolescents) to report on a number of CD
provides data on self-reported cruelty to
which more systematic juvenile crime
symptoms, based on a 3-point scale iden-
animals. Dividing their sample into two
data are available.1
tical to the one used with the CBC. (See
groups—one reporting that they had en-
gaged in violent behavior (acts of “physi-
cal force that tended to inflict harm or
Figure 2: Comparison of Reports of Incidents of Cruelty to Animals
cause bodily injury”) and the other re-
porting that they had not—Youssef, Attia,
and Incidents of Vandalism, by Offender’s Age, Gender, and
and Kamel (1999:284) asked youth whether
Referral Status
they were often cruel to animals. Of the
violent youth, 9.6 percent reported being
cruel; of the nonviolent youth, 2.05 per-
cent reported being cruel. The cruelty-to-
2–3
animals variable significantly (p<0.003)
determined membership in the violent or
nonviolent group.
4–11
It should be noted that instruments used
to assess teacher reports of children’s
uelty to animals*
ears)
problem behaviors rarely include an item
Cr
12–18
on animal abuse (e.g., Reynolds and Kamp-
haus, 1992). Although teachers are unlike-
Age (y
ly to observe their pupils being cruel to
†
4–11
animals, teachers may hear about such
acts or read about them in students’ writ-
ten work. These indirect observations
should be taken seriously and serve as a
andalism
12–18
V
signal for further assessment (Dwyer,
Osher, and Warger, 1998).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Youth (%)
Animal Abuse and
Boys referred to mental
Girls referred to mental
Violent Offending
health services
health services
Animal abuse and interpersonal violence
Boys not referred to
Girls not referred to
toward humans share common character-
mental health services
mental health services
istics: both types of victims are living
creatures, have a capacity for experienc-
* In the past 2 months for children ages 2–3; in the past 6 months for children ages 4–18.
ing pain and distress, can display physical
† The percentage for girls not referred to mental health services was zero for both age groups.
signs of their pain and distress (with which
humans could empathize), and may die
Sources: Achenbach, T.M. 1992. Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/2–3 and 1992 Profile.
as a result of inflicted injuries. Given these
Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry. Achenbach, T.M. 1991. Manual
for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont,
commonalities, it is not surprising that
Department of Psychiatry.
early research in this area, much of it
using retrospective assessment, examined
3

---

percent of the former group reported cru-
elty to animals compared with 0 percent
Figure 3: Comparison of Parental Reports and Self-Reports of Cruelty
of the latter.
to Animals Among 12- to 16-Year-Olds, by Offender’s Gender
Miller and Knutson (1997) examined self-
reports of animal abuse by 299 inmates in-
carcerated for various felony offenses and
Parent Reports
308 introductory psychology class under-
graduates.2 The percentages of inmates
and undergraduates, respectively, report-
ing the following types of animal abuse
Self-Reports
were as follows: “Hurt an animal?” 16.4
percent and 9.7 percent, “Killed a stray?”
32.8 percent and 14.3 percent, and “Killed
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
a pet?” 12 percent and 3.2 percent.
More recently, Schiff, Louw, and Ascione
Youth (%)
(1999) surveyed 117 men incarcerated in a
South African prison about their childhood
Boys
Girls
animal abuse. Of the 58 men who had com-
mitted crimes of aggression, 63.3 percent
Source: Offord, D.R., Boyle, M.H., and Racine, Y.A. 1991. The epidemiology of antisocial behav-
admitted to cruelty to animals; of the 59
ior in childhood and adolescence. In The Development and Treatment of Childhood Aggression,
nonaggressive inmates, the percentage
edited by D.J. Pepler and K.H. Rubin. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 31–54.
was 10.5 percent.
This figure was derived from table 2.3, p. 39.
In a study of 28 convicted, incarcerated
sexual homicide perpetrators (all men),
Ressler, Burgess, and Douglas (1988) as-
sessed the men’s self-reports of cruelty to
Figure 4: Comparison of Parental Reports and Self-Reports of
animals in childhood and adolescence.
Vandalism and Firesetting Among 12- to 16-Year-Olds,
Childhood animal abuse was reported by
by Offender’s Gender
36 percent of the perpetrators, and 46 per-
cent admitted to abusing animals as ado-
lescents. Thirty-six percent of these men
said they had also abused animals in adult-
Parent reports
hood. In a study by Tingle et al. (1986) of
64 convicted male sex offenders, animal
abuse in childhood or adolescence was
andalism
V
Self-reports
reported by 48 percent of the rapists and
30 percent of the child molesters.
Taken together, these studies suggest that
animal abuse may be characteristic of the
Parent reports
developmental histories of between one in
four and nearly two in three violent adult
offenders.
Firesetting
Self-reports
Animal Abuse and
0
2
4
6
8
10
Conduct Disorder
Youth (%)
The fourth edition of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Boys
Girls
(DSM–IV) defines CD as “a repetitive and
persistent pattern of behavior in which
Source: Offord, D.R., Boyle, M.H., and Racine, Y.A. 1991. The epidemiology of antisocial behav-
the basic rights of others or major age-
ior in childhood and adolescence. In The Development and Treatment of Childhood Aggression,
appropriate societal norms or rules are
edited by D.J. Pepler and K.H. Rubin. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 31–54.
violated” and requires that at least 3 of 15
separate symptoms be present in the past
year for a diagnosis of CD (American Psy-
chiatric Association, 1994:90). Among the
the relation between childhood histories of
childhood (25 percent) than a comparison
symptoms listed are those categorized un-
animal abuse and later violent offending.
group of nonincarcerated men (0 percent).
der “deceitfulness or theft,” “destruction
A similar difference emerged in a study of
Kellert and Felthous (1985) found that vio-
of property” (which encompasses fireset-
assaultive and nonassaultive women of-
lent, incarcerated men reported higher
ting and vandalism), and “aggression to
fenders (Felthous and Yudowitz, 1977): 36
rates of “substantial cruelty to animals” in
4

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people and animals” (which includes cru-
Because of the interest in early identifica-
physical cruelty to animals (not passive
elty to people or to animals, stealing with
tion of children at risk for later violent
forms of cruelty such as neglect). A com-
confrontation of the victim, and forced
offending, it should be noted that cruelty
parison group of 153 individuals (matched
sexual activity). There is a great deal of
to animals may be one of the first CD
for age, gender, and socioeconomic sta-
overlap between the symptoms of CD and
symptoms to appear in young children.
tus, but with no record of any cruelty-to-
behaviors used to characterize serious
Parents’ reports on the emergence of CD
animal complaints) was selected from the
violent juvenile offenders (see Loeber,
symptoms in their children mark 6.5 years
same neighborhoods in which those who
Farrington, and Waschbusch, 1998:14–15).
as the median age for onset of “hurting
had been prosecuted resided. The State’s
Cruelty to animals has only recently been
animals”—earlier than bullying, cruelty to
criminal records were reviewed for each
included in the symptom list for CD, ap-
people, vandalism, or setting fires (Frick
individual in both groups. Any adult ar-
pearing for the first time in the revised
et al., 1993). That study reinforces the
rests for violent, property, drug, or public
third edition of the Manual (DSM–III–R;
importance of considering animal abuse a
order offenses were noted. As shown in
American Psychiatric Association, 1987).
significant early warning sign for identify-
figure 5, individuals prosecuted for animal
Cruelty to animals, however, does not
ing youth with potential for receiving a CD
abuse were more likely to have an adult
specifically appear in any of the categories
diagnosis.4 The diagnostic value of this
arrest in each of the four crime categor-
(i.e., person, property, drug, and public
symptom is also supported in a report by
ies than the comparison group members.
order) under which juvenile offenders are
Spitzer, Davies, and Barkley (1990), which
The differences between percentages for
classified in national crime reporting sys-
was based on national field trials for
abusers and nonabusers were highly sig-
tems (see Snyder and Sickmund, 1999) de-
developing DSM–III–R.
nificant (p<0.0001) for all four types of
spite law enforcement’s acknowledgment
offenses. These results make it clear that
Recently, Luk et al. (1999:30) reported a
of the link between animal abuse and hu-
animal abusers are not only dangerous to
reanalysis of case data for a sample of
man violence (Lockwood and Church,
their animal victims but also may jeopard-
children (n=141) referred to mental health
1996; Ponder and Lockwood, 2000; Schleu-
ize human welfare.
services for “symptoms suggestive of op-
ter, 1999; Turner, 2000).
positional defiant/conduct disorder” and
Animal abuse may vary in frequency, se-
control data for a sample of community
Motivations That May
verity, and chronicity and range from the
children (n=37). The clinic-referred chil-
Underlie Animal Abuse
developmentally immature teasing of ani-
dren were subdivided into two groups
mals (e.g., a toddler pulling a kitten along
based on CBC assessments: cruelty to ani-
by Children and
by the tail) to serious animal torture (e.g.,
mals present (n=40) and absent (n=101).
Adolescents
stealing neighborhood pets and setting
Therefore, 28.4 percent of the clinic-
Whenever high-profile cases of animal
them on fire). Unfortunately, most assess-
referred children displayed animal abuse.
abuse are reported in the media, a com-
ments of cruelty to animals lack a scaling
The community children were selected
mon public reaction is to ask: “Why would
of these important differences. One excep-
only if cruelty to animals was absent in
someone do that?” Burying puppies alive,
tion is the Interview for Antisocial Behavior
their CBC assessments. Luk et al. dem-
shooting wild mustangs, setting a dog on
(IAB) developed by Kazdin and Esveldt-
onstrated that differentiating the clinic-
fire, beating a petting zoo donkey—these
Dawson (1986). Although it was created
referred subgroups on the basis of cruelty
and countless other examples offend the
before the 1987 revision of the DSM, this
to animals was related to scores on a
public by their seemingly senseless cruel-
instrument assesses 30 forms of antisocial
measure of childhood behavior problems
ty. In an effort to better understand this
behavior, several of which reflect the cur-
that, unlike the CBC, does not assess
phenomenon, Kellert and Felthous (1985:
rent CD symptom listings (established in
cruelty to animals—the Eyberg Child
1122–1124) interviewed abusers and dis-
1994). The IAB has a number of positive
Behavior Inventory (Eyberg and Ross,
covered a number of motivations that may
features, including both parent- and self-
1978). The authors found that clinic-
characterize adult cruelty to animals, some
report forms and ratings of problem
referred children assessed as being cruel
of which may also be applicable to animal
severity and chronicity.3
to animals had significantly (p<0.001)
abuse perpetrated by juveniles:
higher mean problem and problem-severi-
As illustrated in a study of psychiatric out-
ty scores on the Eyberg Inventory than
x To control an animal (i.e., animal abuse
patient referrals by Loeber et al. (1993),
either clinic children who were not cruel
as discipline or “training”).
patterns of chronic behavior may be more
to animals or community children.
significant than isolated incidents. Three
x To retaliate against an animal.
yearly assessments that included a ques-
Thus, there is substantial evidence for the
x To satisfy a prejudice against a species
tion about cruelty to animals were comple-
value of assessing cruelty to animals as a
or breed (e.g., hatred of cats).
ted with 177 boys ages 7–12 years, some
specific symptom of CD and as a correlate
x
of whom (40.1 percent) were diagnosed
of other forms of antisocial behavior in
To express aggression through an ani-
with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)
both childhood and adulthood. One addi-
mal (i.e., training an animal to attack,
and others (38.4 percent) with CD. Single-
tional study will be described to illustrate
using inflicted pain to create a “mean”
year assessment of cruelty to animals
this conclusion.
dog).
did not differentiate boys with ODD from
x To enhance one’s own aggressiveness
Arluke and colleagues (1999) reviewed the
those with CD, but a significant difference
(e.g., using an animal victim for target
files of the Massachusetts Society for the
emerged when scores on this item were
practice).
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and locat-
aggregated over a 3-year period: cruelty
ed the records of 153 individuals (146 males
x To shock people for amusement.
to animals was present for 13.3 percent of
and 7 females, age range 11–76 years)
boys with ODD and 29.4 percent of boys
x To retaliate against other people (by
who had been prosecuted for intentional
with CD (p<0.05).
hurting their pets or abusing animals
in their presence).
5

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CD assessments are not usually designed
to discover the underlying reasons for a
Figure 5: Percentage of Types of Other Offenses Committed by
child’s or adolescent’s cruelty to animals,
Individuals Prosecuted for Animal Abuse and a Control
but as with juvenile firesetting (discussed
Group Who Did Not Abuse Animals
below), understanding motivations may
be critical for designing effective interven-
tion strategies. A recent review by Agnew
(1998) provides a more extensive treat-
Violent
ment of the social-psychological causes of
animal abuse.
ense
Property
As noted by Ascione and Lockwood (2001),
one model that could be used to develop
an animal abuse assessment instrument
is the approach that has been taken to
Drug
assess juvenile firesetting. Firesetting
shares many features with animal abuse:
ype of Other Off
T
both are CD symptoms, may reflect devel-
opmental changes, may share etiological
Disorder
factors, may often be performed covertly,
and may be early sentinels for later psy-
0
10
20
30
40
50
chological problems.
Percentage
Some children may manifest both problem
behaviors. Wooden and Berkey (1984)
Animal abusers
Nonabusers of animals
noted the co-occurrence of cruelty to ani-
mals in a sample of 69 firesetters ages
4–17: cruelty to animals was reported for
Note: Age range of sample: 11–76 years. All chi-square comparisons between abusers and
46 percent of 4- to 8-year-olds, 9 percent
nonabusers significant at p<0.0001.
of 9- to 12-year-olds, and 12 percent of
Source: Arluke, A., Levin, J., Luke, C., and Ascione, F. 1999. The relationship of animal abuse to
13- to 17-year-olds. The authors caution
violence and other forms of antisocial behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14:963–975.
that the lower rates for older children and
adolescents may be related to the covert
nature of this behavior, as children experi-
x To displace hostility from a person to
x Forced abuse (i.e., the child is coerced
ence greater independence and venture
an animal (i.e., attacking a vulnerable
into animal abuse by a more powerful
farther from home for more prolonged
animal when assaulting the real human
individual).
periods. Sakheim and Osborne (1994)
target is judged too risky).
reported similar results with samples of
x Attachment to an animal (e.g., the child
children who set fires (n=100) and those
x To experience nonspecific sadism (i.e.,
kills an animal to prevent its torture by
who did not (n=55). Fifty percent of the
enjoying the suffering experienced by
another individual).
firesetters’ parents reported that their
the animal victim, in and of itself).
x Animal phobias (that cause a preemp-
children had been cruel “to children or
Child and adolescent motivations for ani-
tive attack on a feared animal).
animals,” but only 9 percent of parents of
mal abuse have not been studied as exten-
x
the children who did not set fires reported
Identification with the child’s abuser
sively. However, case reports and a youth
the same (p<0.01).
(e.g., a victimized child may try to re-
interview study (using the Cruelty to Ani-
gain a sense of power by victimizing a
Animal abuse in the context of firesetting
mals Assessment Instrument) conducted
more vulnerable animal).
may also have predictive value. Rice and
by Ascione, Thompson, and Black (1997)
Harris (1996) reported on a sample of 243
suggest a number of developmentally
x Posttraumatic play (i.e., reenacting vio-
firesetters who had resided in a maximum-
related motivations:
lent episodes with an animal victim).
security psychiatric facility and were later
x
x
Imitation (i.e., copying a parent’s or
Curiosity or exploration (i.e., the ani-
released. In a followup of 208 of these
other adult’s abusive “discipline” of
mal is injured or killed in the process of
men, Rice and Harris found that a child-
animals).
being examined, usually by a young or
hood history of cruelty to animals (coded
developmentally delayed child).
x Self-injury (i.e., using an animal to inflict
from patient records) predicted violent
x
injuries on the child’s own body).
offense recidivism (p<0.001) and nonvio-
Peer pressure (e.g., peers may encour-
lent offense recidivism (p<0.05) but not
age animal abuse or require it as part
x Rehearsal for interpersonal violence
firesetting recidivism.5
of an initiation rite).
(i.e., “practicing” violence on stray ani-
x
mals or pets before engaging in violent
Mood enhancement (e.g., animal
The Salt Lake City Area Juvenile Firesetter/
acts against other people).
abuse is used to relieve boredom or
Arson Control and Prevention Program
depression).
x Vehicle for emotional abuse (e.g., injur-
(1992), funded by the Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention, is
x
ing a sibling’s pet to frighten the sibling).
Sexual gratification (i.e., bestiality).
based on a typology of juvenile firesetters
that may be relevant for developing a
6

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children who are developmentally
delayed may also fall into this group.
x Pathological animal abuse. Children
in this category are more likely to be
(though not necessarily) older than chil-
dren in the exploratory/curious group.
Rather than indicating a lack of educa-
tion about the humane treatment of ani-
mals, animal abuse by these children
may be symptomatic of psychological
disturbances of varying severity. For
example, a number of studies have tied
childhood animal abuse to childhood
histories of physical abuse, sexual
abuse, and exposure to domestic vio-
lence (see pages 8–9 for discussions of
these issues). In these cases, profession-
al, clinical intervention is warranted.
x Delinquent animal abuse. Youth in this
typology for children who abuse animals
made to educate parents about fire safety
category are most likely to be adoles-
(Marcel Chappuis, personal communica-
and the need for supervising young chil-
cents whose animal abuse may be one
tion, March 23, 1998). The typology of
dren. Children who fall into the other two
of a number of antisocial activities. In
juvenile firesetters categorizes children
groups are referred to mental health serv-
some cases, the animal abuse may be a
into the following groups:
ices because fire departments are not pre-
component of gang/cult-related activi-
pared to deal with the psychological prob-
ties (e.g., initiation rites) or less formal
x Normal curiosity firesetters. The mean
lems these young people may present.
group violence and destructiveness.
age of this group is 5 years (range, 3–7
The use of alcohol and other substances
years). Children in this group often
It might be possible to develop a similar
may be associated with animal abuse
share the characteristics of poor paren-
typology for children who abuse animals.
for these youth, and they may require
tal supervision, a lack of fire education,
Although there is not a great deal of em-
both judicial and clinical interventions.
and no fear of fire.
pirical information on which to rely, the
x “Plea-for-help” firesetters. The mean
study by Ascione, Thompson, and Black
The Etiology of Animal
age of this group is 9 years (range,
(1997) suggests the varied motivations
7–13 years). The group’s firesetting
that may underlie child and adolescent
Abuse
is often symptomatic of more deep-
animal abuse. Using the extensive experi-
Although “bad seed” interpretations of
seated psychological disturbance.
ence of animal control and animal welfare
youth violence have waxed and waned
The individuals usually have had ade-
professionals, one could develop a typolo-
throughout history (Garbarino, 1999;
quate fire education.
gy mirroring that for juvenile firesetters.
Kellerman, 1999), it is clear that attention
A sketch of such a typology might ap-
x Delinquent firesetters. The mean age
to the family, social, and community con-
proximate the following:
of this group is 14 years (range, 13
texts of children’s lives is critical for un-
years to adulthood). Firesetting may be
x Exploratory/curious animal abuse.
derstanding violent behavior. This holds
one of a host of adolescent-onset anti-
Children in this category are likely to
true for the special case of animal abuse.
social behaviors, including gang-related
be of preschool or early elementary
As Widom (1989) has demonstrated, a
activities, exhibited by this group.
school age, poorly supervised, and
history of child abuse and neglect places
lacking training on the physical care
individuals at risk for later delinquency,
The Salt Lake City program has developed
and humane treatment of a variety of
adult criminal offending, and violent crimi-
a series of assessment scales geared to
animals, especially family pets and/or
nal activity. This section addresses factors
each age group of firesetters that can be
stray animals and neighborhood wild-
in children’s lives that have been associat-
administered to the child and the child’s
life. Humane education interventions
ed with increased levels of animal abuse.
parent/guardian. In addition to questions
(teaching children to be kind, caring,
The factors range from negative but rela-
about fire education and the firesetting
and nurturing toward animals) by par-
tively normative experiences (corporal
incident(s), this series has questions about
ents, childcare providers, and teachers
punishment) to potentially more devastat-
general behavior problems (similar to
are likely to be sufficient to encourage
ing circumstances (physical abuse, sexual
items on the CBC), including one item
desistence of animal abuse in these
abuse, and domestic violence).
about cruelty to animals. (There is also a
children. Age alone should not be the
direct question about whether the fireset-
determining factor in including children
Corporal Punishment
ting incident involved the burning of an
in this category. For example, CD symp-
animal.) Responses to these assessments
Evidence continues to mount on the inef-
toms may have an early developmental
are used to select an intervention strate-
fectiveness and deleterious nature of cor-
onset, and as noted earlier, cruelty to
gy. Children who fall into the normal cu-
poral punishment as a child-rearing tech-
animals is one of the earliest CD symp-
riosity group are often enrolled in a fire
nique (Straus, 1991). Two recent studies
toms to be noted by caretakers. Older
education program, and attempts may be
link this evidence to animal abuse. In a
survey of 267 undergraduates, 68.4 percent
7

---

of whom were women, Flynn (1999a) asked
of 53 New Jersey families that met State
Bestiality may range from touching or
participants about their history of abusing
criteria for substantiated child abuse and
fondling the genitals of animals to sexual
animals (e.g., hurting, torturing, or killing
neglect and had pets in their homes re-
intercourse and violent sexual abuse.
pets or stray animals; sex acts with ani-
vealed that in 60 percent of these families,
Some species of animals may be seriously
mals). Students also responded to items
pets were also abused or neglected. Animal
injured or die as a result of the abuse
assessing attitudes toward spanking and
abuse was significantly higher (88 percent)
inflicted (e.g., penetration that damages
husband-on-wife abuse. In all, 34.5 percent
in families where child physical abuse was
internal organs). Beirne (1997) provided
of the men and 9.3 percent of the women
present than in families where other forms
an excellent theoretical overview of this
reported at least one childhood incident of
of child maltreatment (e.g., sexual abuse)
issue, but empirical studies, especially
animal abuse. These respondents (both
occurred (34 percent). One or both par-
with children, are rare (e.g., see case study
men and women) were significantly more
ents and their children were responsible
by Wiegand, Schmidt, and Kleiber, 1999).
likely to endorse the use of corporal pun-
for abusing the families’ pets.
Lane (1997) noted that juvenile sex offend-
ishment and to approve of a husband slap-
ing may include bestiality, sometimes com-
ping his wife. Although these findings do
Sexual Abuse
bined with other violent behavior toward
not establish a direct link between abusing
animals. Adolescent sexual offenders may
Friedrich et al. (1992) compared a non-
animals and spanking children or slapping
also use threats of harm to pets as a way
abused sample of 880 children ages 2–12
wives, they do suggest an association be-
of gaining compliance from their human
with 276 children in the same age range
tween animal abuse and accepting atti-
victims (Kaufman, Hilliker, and Daleiden,
who had been sexually abused in the past
tudes toward these activities.
1996). In the study of sexual homicide per-
12 months. Based on a reexamination of
petrators cited earlier (Ressler, Burgess,
In a followup report with this same sam-
data from this study, Friedrich (personal
and Douglas, 1988), 40 percent of the men
ple of undergraduates, Flynn (1999b)
communication, April 1992) provided
who said they had been sexually abused in
found that, for men, perpetrating animal
information on cruelty to animals derived
childhood or adolescence reported having
abuse was positively correlated with the
from the nonperpetrating caretakers’ CBC
sexual contact with animals. Itzin (1998)
frequency of their father’s use of corporal
reports on children. As shown in figure 6,
reported anecdotal evidence of bestiality
punishment (spanking, slapping, or hit-
children with a history of sexual abuse
being forced on children who also were
ting) in adolescence. Self-reports of animal
were significantly (p<0.001) more likely to
sexually abused and involved in the pro-
abuse by men experiencing paternal cor-
have been cruel to animals than children
duction of child pornography.
poral punishment in adolescence were 2.4
in the nonabused group. A study of 499
times higher than for men who were not
seriously mentally ill 5- to 18-year-olds
Although it is difficult to obtain informa-
physically disciplined (57.1 percent and
hospitalized at a tertiary care psychiatric
tion about sexual behavior in children and
23.1 percent, respectively, p<0.005).
facility (McClellan et al., 1995) also found
adolescents, especially sexual behavior
cruelty to animals to be more prevalent
with animals, Friedrich (1997) provided
Physical Abuse
among patients who had been sexually
some information on this issue with data
abused than among those who had not
from his Child Sexual Behavior Inventory
Research specifically designed to assess
been sexually abused (p=0.004).
(CSBI). Caregivers of 1,114 children ages
the relation between animal abuse and
2–12 who had not been abused and care-
child maltreatment is meager yet compel-
One form of cruelty to animals that has
givers of 512 sexually abused children in
ling in its implications. For example, a 1983
received scant attention in the literature is
the same age range reported on a variety
study by DeViney, Dickert, and Lockwood
the sexual abuse of animals, or bestiality.
of sexual or sexualized behaviors in the
children, including whether the child
“touches animals’ sex parts.” (Note: The
reporting caregivers of the sexually abused
Figure 6: Percentage of Youth Ages 2–12 Reported by Caregivers
children were not the perpetrators of the
To Have Been Cruel to Animals, by Offender’s Gender and
abuse.) The children were divided into
History of Sexual Abuse
three age groups: ages 2–5, 6–9, and 10–12.
The queried behavior was relatively infre-
quent, but it was clear that in the two
older groups, sexually abused children
No history of
were more likely to display the behavior
sexual abuse
than nonabused children (see figure 7).
Although the behavior appears to decline
History of
among sexually abused 10- to 12-year-olds,
sexual abuse
one might speculate that the decrease is
accounted for, in part, by a greater secre-
Victimization Status
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
tiveness in older children in acting out sex-
ually with animals. The decrease may also
Youth (%)
be related to older children’s transferring
their inappropriate sexual activity from
Boys
Girls
animal to human victims.
Further evidence for the relation between
Source: Friedrich, W.N., personal communication, April 1992.
sexual abuse victimization and bestiality is
8

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whether their adult partner had ever
threatened or actually hurt or killed one
Figure 7: Percentage of Youth Ages 2–12 Reported by Caregivers
or more of their pets, 71 percent of women
To Have Sexually Abused Animals, by Offender’s Age,
with pets responded “yes.” Thirty-two per-
Gender, and Victimization Status
cent of women with children reported that
their children had hurt or killed one or
12
more family pets. In a replication study
of 100 women who were battered and had
10
entered a shelter and a comparison group
of 117 nonbattered women, all of whom
8
had pets, Ascione (2000b) found that 54
percent of the battered women compared
6
with 5 percent of the nonbattered women
outh (%)
reported that their partner had hurt or
Y
4
killed pets (see figure 8). Children’s expo-
sure to this animal abuse was reported by
2
62 percent of the battered women. Nearly
one in four of the battered women report-
0
ed that concern for their pets’ welfare had
2–5
6–9
10–12
prevented them from seeking shelter
sooner.6
Age (years)
Flynn (2000) reported similar findings in
Sexually abused boys
Sexually abused girls
a study of 43 women with pets who had
entered a South Carolina domestic violence
Nonabused boys
Nonabused girls
shelter. (Twenty-eight of the women were
accompanied by children.) Of these 43
women, 46.5 percent reported threats to
Source: Friedrich, W.N. 1997. Child Sexual Behavior Inventory: Professional Manual. Odessa,
(n=9) or harm of (n=11) their pets. Al-
FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
though only 7 percent of children were
reported to be cruel to animals, 33.3 per-
cent of women whose pets were abused
reported that their children had also been
Figure 8: Percentage of Women Who Reported That Their Domestic
abused. Of the women whose pets were
not abused, 15.8 percent reported child
Partners Hurt or Killed Pets, by Reporter’s History of
abuse. (The figure was 10.5 percent for
Domestic Abuse
women with no pets.)
These studies make it clear that in fami-
Victims of Domestic
lies challenged by child maltreatment and
Abuse (n=100)
domestic violence, there is increased op-
portunity for children to be exposed to
Nonvictims of Domestic
the abuse of animals. Even if adult family
Abuse (n=117)
members do not abuse animals, some chil-
dren may express the pain of their own
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
victimization by abusing vulnerable family
pets. Just as researchers are beginning to
Women (%)
understand the overlap between child
abuse and neglect and domestic violence
Source: Ascione, F.R. 2000b. What veterinarians need to know about the link between animal
between intimate adult partners (Ross,
abuse and interpersonal violence. Proceedings of the 137th Annual Meeting of the American
1996), they must now consider the over-
Veterinary Medical Association, Salt Lake City, UT, July 25, 2000 (CD–ROM records #316–317).
lap of these forms of abuse with animal
maltreatment (see figure 9).
provided by Wherry and colleagues (1995).
Domestic Violence
Policy Implications and
They administered the CSBI to caretakers
Recommendations
Animals may also be abused in the con-
of 24 boys ages 6–12 who were psychiatric
text of family violence between intimate
This section addresses issues relating to
inpatients. Eight of these boys had been
adult partners. Ascione (1998) reported
the reporting, assessment, and treatment
sexually abused. “Touches animals’ sex
an interview study of 38 women who were
of children involved in animal abuse. It
parts” was reported for 50 percent of
battered and had sought shelter. Fifty-
presents recommendations associated
abused boys but none of nonabused boys
eight percent of the women had children
with these issues and highlights the need
(p<0.01).
and 74 percent had pets. When asked
for enhanced professional training.
9

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and adult-perpetrated animal abuse to
sources of information about this be-
social welfare and law enforcement
havior problem. To obtain a better es-
Figure 9: Interconnectedness
agencies and should maintain systemat-
timate of the incidence of animal
of Different Types
ic records that could be available for
abuse, youth surveys of violent behav-
of Abuse
archival review (Ascione and Barnard,
ior should include self-report items
1998; Ascione, Kaufmann, and Brooks,
such as “Have you hurt an animal on
2000).
purpose?” or “Have you made an ani-
x Parents, childcare providers, teachers,
mal suffer for no reason?” Also, wit-
others who play caregiving roles for
nessing animal abuse is a form of
Child Abuse
Domestic
children (e.g., clergy, coaches), and
exposure to violence that should be
and Neglect
Violence
young people themselves should be in-
routinely assessed because it may have
formed that animal abuse may be a sig-
significant effects on young people
nificant sign of a tendency to violence
(Boat, 1999). Often children are deeply
and psychological disturbance and
attached to their pets and observing
should not be ignored. Efforts in this
the violent abuse or death of a pet at
Animal
area are already emerging and include
the hands of others may be emotional-
Abuse
Early Warning, Timely Response: A
ly devastating.
Guide to Safe Schools (Dwyer, Osher,
and Warger, 1998) from the U.S. Depart-
Assessment and Treatment
ment of Education and the Warning
As part of the search for effective youth
Source: Ascione, F.R., and Arkow, P., eds.
Signs guide (1999) developed by MTV-
violence prevention and intervention pro-
1999. Child Abuse, Domestic Violence,
Music Television™ and the American
grams, animal welfare organizations have
and Animal Abuse: Linking the Circles
Psychological Association and dissemi-
been developing educational and thera-
of Compassion for Prevention and
nated as part of their Fight for Your
peutic efforts that incorporate “animal-
Intervention. West Lafayette, IN:
Rights: Take a Stand Against Violence
assisted” or “animal-facilitated” compo-
Purdue University Press.
campaign. The American Humane
nents (Duel, 2000). The underlying theme
Association’s (1996) Growing Up Hu-
of many of these programs is that teach-
mane in a Violent World: A Parent’s
ing young people to train, care for, and
Reporting
Guide provides developmentally sensi-
interact in a nurturing manner with ani-
Cruelty to animals is all too often a part of
tive information about children and
mals will reduce any propensity they may
the landscape of violence in which youth
animals and the significance of animal
have for aggression and violence. These
participate and to which they are exposed.
abuse. The Guide also includes edu-
programs assume that children are more
The number of animals that are victims of
cational strategies appropriate for
likely to commit animal abuse when their
such abuse is, at present, difficult to esti-
preschoolers and some designed for
capacity for empathy has been under-
mate, as is the number of young people
elementary and secondary school
mined or compromised (for example, by
who perpetrate such abuse. In an ideal
students.
years of neglect or maltreatment—see
world, national data would be available on
x
Bavolek, 2000). Developing a sense of
Youth should be surveyed about their
the yearly incidence of animal abuse, data
empathy for animals is assumed to be
treatment of animals. Because animals
that could be used to track trends and
a bridge to greater empathy for fellow
may often be abused covertly, parents
serve as a baseline against which the
human beings, making violence toward
and other adults may not be the best
effectiveness of interventions could be
them less likely.
assessed. The existing national data col-
lection systems in the area of child abuse
and neglect illustrate the value of such
archival records (Sedlak and Broadhurst,
1996). However, it is not clear how animal
abuse offenses could be incorporated into
the existing categorization (person, prop-
erty, drug, public order) of juvenile arrests.
Only two States (Minnesota and West Vir-
ginia) mandate that veterinarians report
suspected cases of animal abuse (Frasch
et al., 1999). Until a national system of
monitoring and reporting animal abuse
is instituted, the following approaches
to recording cases of animal abuse are
recommended:
x Local humane societies, societies for
the prevention of cruelty to animals,
and animal control agencies should rou-
tinely refer cases of serious, juvenile-
10

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