Aviation Instructor’s Handbook 1999

FAA-H-8083-9

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AVIATION INSTRUCTOR’S
HANDBOOK
1999
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
Flight Standards Service

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PREFACE
The Aviation Instructor’s Handbook is designed for ground instructors, flight instructors, and avia-
tion maintenance instructors. It is developed by the Flight Standards Service, Airman Testing
Standards Branch in cooperation with aviation educators and industry. This handbook provides the
foundation for beginning instructors to understand and apply the fundamentals of instructing. This
handbook also provides aviation instructors with up-to-date infor mation on learning and teaching,
and how to relate this information to the task of conveying aeronautical knowledge and skills to stu-
dents. Experienced aviation instructors also may find the new and updated information useful for improv-
ing their effectiveness in training activities.
Chapters 1 through 5 concentrate on learning theory and the teaching process, emphasizing the
characteristics of human behavior and the importance of communication. Chapters 6 and 7 provide
valuable tools for critiquing and evaluating student performance and enhancing instructional presen-
tations with teaching aids and new training technologies. Chapter 8 defines instructor responsibilities
and emphasizes ways that instructors can develop and portray a professional image to their stu-
dents. Chapter 9 contains useful information that can be applied when teaching in the aircraft, and
also provides comprehensive treatment for teaching aeronautical decision making (ADM) and judg-
ment. Chapters 10 and 11 provide valuable information for planning instructional activity and contin-
uing professional development. Occasionally, the word “must” or similar language is used where
the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret,
or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).
This handbook supersedes AC 60-14, Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, dated 1977; AC 61-101, Presolo
Written Test, dated 1989; and AC 61-115, Positive Exchange of Flight Controls, dated 1995. It can be
purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO),
Washington, DC 20402-9325, or from U.S. Government Bookstores located in major cities throughout
the United States.
The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and subject matter knowledge
codes for all instructor certificates and ratings can be obtained from the Regulatory Support Division,
AFS-600, home page on the Internet.
The Regulatory Support Division’s Internet address is: http://www.mmac.jccbi.gov/afs/afs600
Comments regarding this handbook should be sent to U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City,
OK 73125.
AC 00-2, Advisory Circular Checklist, transmits the current status of FAA advisory circulars and other flight
information and publications. This checklist is free of charge and may be obtained by sending a request to
U.S. Department of Transportation, Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC-121.23, Ardmore East Business
Center, 3341 Q 75th Avenue, Landover, MD 20785. The checklist is also available on the Internet at
http://www.faa.gov/abc/ac-chklst/actoc.htm

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CONTENTS
Repression ...............................................1-15
Chapter 1—The Learning Process
Retention of Learning ..................................1-15
Learning Theory ...............................................1-1
Praise Stimulates Remembering ..............1-15
Behaviorism...................................................1-1
Recall is Promoted by Association...........1-15
Cognitive Theory ...........................................1-1
Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention ............1-15
Combined Approach ......................................1-2
Learning with All Our Senses is Most Effective .1-
Definition of Learning .......................................1-2
15
Characteristics of Learning ..............................1-2
Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall ...........1-15
Learning is Purposeful...................................1-2
Transfer of Learning .......................................1-16
Learning is a Result of Experience ...............1-3
Habit Formation ...........................................1-16
Learning is Multifaceted ................................1-3
Learning is an Active Process .......................1-3
Learning Styles ..............................................1-3
Chapter 2—Human Behavior
Principles of Learning.......................................1-5
Control of Human Behavior..............................2-1
Readiness......................................................1-5
Human Needs ..................................................2-2
Exercise .........................................................1-5
Physical .........................................................2-2
Effect ..............................................................1-5
Safety.............................................................2-2
Primacy ..........................................................1-5
Social .............................................................2-2
Intensity .........................................................1-5
Ego ................................................................2-2
Recency.........................................................1-5
Self-Fulfillment ...............................................2-3
How People Learn .........................................1-5
Defense Mechanisms.......................................2-3
Perceptions ....................................................1-6
Compensation ...............................................2-3
Factors Which Affect Perception................1-6
Projection.......................................................2-3
Physical Organism .....................................1-6
Rationalization ...............................................2-3
Basic Need.................................................1-6
Denial of Reality ............................................2-3
Goals and Values .......................................1-6
Reaction Formation .......................................2-3
Self Concept...............................................1-6
Flight ..............................................................2-3
Time and Opportunity.................................1-7
Aggression .....................................................2-4
Element of Threat.......................................1-7
Resignation....................................................2-4
Insight.........................................................1-7
The Flight Instructor as a Practical Psychologist ...2-4
Motivation ...................................................1-8
Anxiety ...........................................................2-4
Levels of Learning............................................1-9
Normal Reactions to Stress ...........................2-5
Domains of Learning ...................................1-10
Abnormal Reactions to Stress .......................2-5
Cognitive Domain.....................................1-10
Flight Instructor Actions Regarding Seriously
Affective Domain ......................................1-10
Abnormal Students .....................................2-5
Psychomotor Domain ...............................1-10
Practical Application of Learning Objectives1-11
Learning Physical Skills ..................................1-11
Chapter 3—Effective Communication
Physical Skills Involve More Than Muscles 1-12
Desire to Learn.........................................1-12
Basic Elements.................................................3-1
Patterns to Follow ....................................1-12
Source ...........................................................3-1
Perform the Skill.......................................1-12
Symbols .........................................................3-2
Knowledge of Results ..............................1-12
Receiver.........................................................3-2
Progress Follows a Pattern......................1-12
Barriers to Effective Communication................3-3
Duration and Organization of Lesson ......1-13
Lack of Common Experience ........................3-3
Evaluation Versus Critique.......................1-13
Confusion Between the Symbol and the
Application of Skill ....................................1-13
Symbolized Object .....................................3-4
Memory ..........................................................1-13
Overuse of Abstractions ................................3-4
Sensory Register .........................................1-13
Interference ...................................................3-5
Working or Short-Term Memory ..................1-13
Developing Communication Skills....................3-5
Long-Term Memory .....................................1-14
Role Playing ..................................................3-5
Theories of Forgetting .................................1-15
Instructional Communication .........................3-5
Disuse ......................................................1-15
Listening .....................................................3-6
Interference ..............................................1-15
Questioning ................................................3-7

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Instructional Enhancement ...........................3-7
Student Preparation for a Guided Discussion .5-9
Chapter 4—The Teaching Process
Guiding a Discussion—Instructor Technique ..5-9
Introduction ..................................................5-9
Preparation .......................................................4-1
Discussion ...................................................5-9
Performance-Based Objectives.....................4-1
Conclusion..................................................5-9
Description of the Skill or Behavior............4-2
Demonstration-Performance Method .............5-10
Conditions ..................................................4-2
Explanation Phase.......................................5-10
Criteria........................................................4-2
Demonstration Phase ..................................5-10
Other Uses of Performance-Based Objectives.
Student Performance and Instructor
4-3
Supervision Phases..................................5-10
Presentation .....................................................4-3
Evaluation Phase.........................................5-10
Application........................................................4-3
Computer-Based Training Method ................5-10
Review and Evaluation.....................................4-4
Chapter 5—Teaching Methods
Chapter 6—Critique and Evaluation
Organizing Material ...........................................5-1
The Instructor as a Critic ..................................6-1
Introduction.....................................................5-2
Purpose of a Critique.....................................6-1
Attention ......................................................5-2
Characteristics of an Effective Critique .........6-2
Motivation....................................................5-2
Objective ....................................................6-2
Overview .....................................................5-2
Flexible .......................................................6-2
Development ..................................................5-2
Acceptable..................................................6-2
Past to Present ...........................................5-2
Comprehensive ..........................................6-2
Simple to Complex ......................................5-2
Constructive ...............................................6-2
Known to Unknown .....................................5-2
Organized ...................................................6-3
Most Frequently Used to Least
Thoughtful ..................................................6-3
Frequently Used......................................5-3
Specific .......................................................6-3
Conclusion .....................................................5-3
Methods of Critique .......................................6-3
Lecture Method ................................................5-3
Instructor/Student Critique..........................6-3
Teaching Lecture ...........................................5-3
Student-Led Critique ..................................6-3
Preparing the Teaching Lecture .................5-3
Small Group Critique..................................6-3
Suitable Language .....................................5-4
Individual Student Critique by
Types of Delivery........................................5-4
Another Student..........................................6-3
Use of Notes ..............................................5-5
Self-Critique................................................6-3
Formal Versus Informal Lectures ..................5-5
Written Critique ..........................................6-4
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecture ..
Ground Rules for Critiquing...........................6-4
5-5
Evaluation .........................................................6-4
Cooperative or Group Learning Method ..........5-6
Oral Quizzes..................................................6-4
Conditions and Controls ................................5-6
Characteristics of Effective Questions .......6-5
Heterogeneous Groups ..............................5-6
Types of Questions to Avoid ......................6-5
Clear, Complete Directions and Instructions 5-
Answering Questions from Students ..........6-5
6
Written Tests ..................................................6-6
All Students in the Group Must Buy Into the
Characteristics of a Good Test ...................6-6
Targeted Objectives ................................5-6
Test Development..........................................6-7
Positive Interdependence...........................5-6
Determine Level-of-Learning Objectives....6-8
Opportunity for Success.............................5-6
List Indicators/Samples of Desired Behavior ..
Access to Must-Learn Information .............5-7
6-8
Sufficient Time for Learning .......................5-7
Establish Criterion Objectives ....................6-8
Positive Social Interaction Behaviors and
Develop Criterion-Referenced Test Items ..6-8
Attitudes ..................................................5-7
Written Test Items ..........................................6-9
Individual Accountability .............................5-7
Supply Type ...............................................6-9
Recognition and Rewards for
Selection Type............................................6-9
Group Success........................................5-7
True-False...............................................6-9
Debrief on Group Efforts..............................5-7
Multiple-Choice .....................................6-10
Guided Discussion Method ................................5-7
Stems ....................................................6-11
Use of Questions in a Guided Discussion ......5-7
Planning a Guided Discussion ........................5-8
Alternatives ...........................................6-12

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Matching ...............................................6-12
Instructor Tells–Instructor Does .....................9-1
Developing a Test Item Bank ...................6-12
Student Tells–Instructor Does ........................9-2
Principles to Follow ..................................6-13
Student Tells–Student Does ..........................9-2
Presolo Knowledge Tests.........................6-13
Student Does–Instructor Evaluates ...............9-3
Performance Tests .......................................6-14
Integrated Flight Instruction..............................9-3
Development of Habit Patterns .....................9-3
Chapter 7—Instructional Aids and
Accuracy of Flight Control .............................9-4
Training Technologies
Operating Efficiency ......................................9-4
Instructional Aid Theory ....................................7-1
Procedures ....................................................9-4
Reasons for Use of Instructional Aids ..............7-2
Precautions ....................................................9-4
Guidelines for Use of Instructional Aids ...........7-2
Flight Instructor Qualifications .......................9-5
Types of Instructional Aids ...............................7-3
Obstacles to Learning During Flight Instruction...9-5
Chalk or Marker Board ..................................7-3
Unfair Treatment............................................9-5
Supplemental Print Material ..........................7-4
Impatience .....................................................9-5
Enhanced Training Material ...........................7-5
Worry or Lack of Interest ...............................9-5
Projected Material..........................................7-5
Physical Discomfort, Illness, and Fatigue .....9-6
Video..............................................................7-6
Apathy Due to Inadequate Instruction ...........9-6
Passive Video ............................................7-6
Anxiety ...........................................................9-7
Interactive Video ........................................7-7
Positive Exchange of Flight Controls ...............9-7
Computer-Based Multimedia......................7-7
Background ...................................................9-7
Models, Mock-Ups, and Cut-Aways ..............7-9
Procedures ....................................................9-7
Test Preparation Material .................................7-9
Use of Distractions ...........................................9-8
Future Developments .......................................7-9
Aeronautical Decision Making ..........................9-8
Origins of ADM Training ................................9-9
Chapter 8—Instructor Responsibilities and
The Decision-Making Process .....................9-10
Professionalism
Defining the Problem ...............................9-10
Aviation Instructor Responsibilities...................8-1
Choosing a Course of Action ..................9-11
Helping Students Learn .................................8-1
Implementing the Decision and
Providing Adequate Instruction......................8-2
Evaluating the Outcome ..............................9-11
Standards of Performance.............................8-3
Risk Management ....................................9-11
Emphasizing the Positive ..............................8-3
Assessing Risk.....................................................9-12
Flight Instructor Responsibilities ......................8-4
Factors Affecting Decision Making .................9-13
Evaluation of Student Piloting Ability .............8-4
Pilot Self-Assessment..................................9-13
Pilot Supervision ............................................8-5
Recognizing Hazardous Attitudes ............9-13
Practical Test Recommendations ..................8-5
Stress Management .................................9-14
Flight Instructor Endorsements......................8-6
Use of Resources ........................................9-15
FAA Form 8710-1 .......................................8-6
Internal Resources ...................................9-15
Additional Training and Endorsements ..........8-6
External Resources..................................9-16
Flight Reviews ............................................8-6
Workload Management ...............................9-16
Instrument Proficiency Checks...................8-9
Situational Awareness .................................9-17
Aircraft Checkouts/Transitions ...................8-9
Obstacles to Maintaining Situational
Pilot Proficiency .............................................8-9
Awareness ............................................9-17
Professionalism ..............................................8-10
Operational Pitfalls .........................................9-17
Sincerity.......................................................8-10
Evaluating Student Decision Making ..............9-18
Acceptance of the Student...........................8-11
Personal Appearance and Habits ................8-11
Chapter 10—Planning Instructional Activity
Demeanor ....................................................8-11
Course of Training..........................................10-1
Safety Practices and Accident Prevention ...8-11
Objectives and Standards............................10-1
Proper Language.........................................8-12
Blocks of Learning..........................................10-2
Self-Improvement ........................................8-12
Training Syllabus............................................10-3
Minimizing Student Frustrations ..................8-12
Syllabus Format and Content......................10-3
Additional Responsibilities...........................8-13
How to Use a Training Syllabus...............10-4
Lesson Plans..................................................10-5
Chapter 9—Techniques of Flight Instruction
Purpose of the Lesson Plan ........................10-5
The Telling-and-Doing Technique.....................9-1
Characteristics of a Well-Planned Lesson...10-6

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How to Use a Lesson Plan Properly ...........10-6
Educational/Training Institutions ...............11-2
Lesson Plan Formats...................................10-7
Commercial Organizations .......................11-3
Industry Organizations .............................11-3
Chapter 11—Professional Development
Sources of Material.........................................11-3
Growth and Development...............................11-1
Printed Material............................................11-4
The Instructor as a Safety Advocate ...........11-1
Electronic Sources .......................................11-4
Aviation Safety Counselors ......................11-1
Appendix A—Sample Test Items .....................A-1
Continuing Education ...................................11-2
Government..............................................11-2
Appendix B—Instructor Endorsements............B-1
References ......................................................R-1
Glossary ..........................................................G-1
Index ..................................................................I-1

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To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learning
ment, most do agree that learning may be
also may involve a change in attitude or behavior.
explained by a combination of two basic
Children learn to identify objects at an early age;
approaches—behaviorism and the cognitive theo-
teenagers may learn to improve study habits; and
ries.
adults can learn to solve complex problems.
BEHAVIORISM
Pilots and aviation maintenance technicians
(AMTs) need to acquire the higher levels of
Behaviorists believe that animals, including
knowledge and skill, including the ability to exer-
humans, learn in about the same way. Behaviorism
cise judgment and solve problems. The challenge
stresses the importance of having a particular form
for the aviation instructor is to understand how
of behavior reinforced by someone, other than the
people learn, and more importantly, to be able to
student, to shape or control what is learned. In avi-
apply that knowledge to the learning environ-
ation training, the instructor provides the reinforce-
ment. This handbook is designed as a basic
ment. Frequent, positive reinforcement and
guide to educational psychology. This chapter
rewards accelerate learning. This theory provides
addresses that branch of psychology directly
the instructor with ways to manipulate students with
concerned with how people learn.
stimuli, induce the desired behavior or response,
and reinforce the behavior with appropriate
LEARNING THEORY
rewards. In general, the behaviorist theory empha-
sizes positive reinforcement rather than no rein-
Learning theory may be described as a body of
forcement or punishment.
principles advocated by psychologists and educa-
tors to explain how people acquire skills, knowl-
Other features of behaviorism are considerably
edge, and attitudes. Various branches of learning
more complex than this simple explanation.
theory are used in formal training programs to
Instructors who need more details should refer to
improve and accelerate the learning process. Key
psychology texts for a better understanding of
concepts such as desired learning outcomes,
behaviorism. As an instructor, it is important to
objectives of the training, and depth of training
keep in mind that behaviorism is still widely used
also apply. When properly integrated, learning
today, because controlling learning experiences
principles, derived from theories, can be useful to
helps direct students toward specific learning out-
aviation instructors and developers of instruction-
comes.
al programs for both pilots and maintenance tech-
nicians.
COGNITIVE THEORY
Over the years, many theories have attempted to
Much of the recent psychological thinking and
explain how people learn. Even though psycholo-
experimentation in education includes some
gists and educators are not in complete agree-
facets of the cognitive theory. This is true in basic

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