Between and Within Culture Variations of Cultural Value ...

Between and Within Culture Variations of Cultural Value Orientations
Reflected in Television Commercials: An Exploratory Study of China and the
United States


by

Wan-Hsiu Sunny Tsai and Wei-Na Lee




Paper presented at 2006 American Academy of Advertising Conference
in Reno, NV

Please do not quote without authors’ consent.

Wan-Hsiu Sunny Tsai is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Advertising, The
University of Texas at Austin, CMA 7.142, Austin, TX 78712-1092;
wanhsiu@mail.utexas.edu.
Wei-Na Lee is Professor, Department of Advertising, The University of Texas at Austin,
CMA 7.142, Austin, TX 78712-1092; weina@mail.utexas.edu.

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Between and Within Culture Variations of Cultural Value Orientations Reflected in
Television Commercials: An Exploratory Study of China and the United States

Abstract
Various types of cultural values reflected in advertising have been extensively
researched. This study focuses on the specific cultural dimension of individualism and
collectivism to compare American and Chinese advertising content. A comparative
content analysis employing Triandis’ (1995) typology was conducted to investigate the
extent to which the different types of individualism/collectivism suggested by Triandis
(1995) are conveyed in primetime television commercials in China and the U.S, in order
to: (1) compare differences between Western and Eastern cultures as reflected in
advertising; and (2) observe potential variations within a typical individualistic
(American) and collectivist (Chinese) culture. The four types of individualism and
collectivism were reflected in both Chinese and U.S. commercials but to a different
extent. The general pattern suggests that vertical individualism that emphasizes “benefits
to an individual consumer” is the dominant cultural type in both Chinese and American
commercials.

Keywords: International Advertising, Cultural Values, Content Analysis


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Introduction
Cultural values have long been acknowledged as the core of advertising messages
(Pollay and Gallagher 1990; Lin 2001). For a successful international advertising
campaign, and for multinational advertisers to make substantial headways into a local
market, understanding cultural differences is a prerequisite (Keegan 1989; Zhang and
Gelb 1996). Advertising messages that are congruent with the values of local culture are
considered to be effective at generating desirable audience response (Cho et al. 1999;
Han and Shavitt 1994; Taylor, Miracle and Wilson 1997).
With potentially the largest consumer market and the fastest-growing economy
(Xu 1990), China has become an attractive market for many multinational companies.
The “Open Door” policy in 1978 started China’s transformation from a nation-owned
Communist economic system to a socialist market economy (Wang 2001), focusing on
economic development (Zhang and Gelb 1996). Since then, multinational companies
have established themselves and made significant progress in the Chinese market. These
companies have boosted the development of marketing communication in China and, as a
consequence, advertising has become one of China’s fastest-growing industries (Zhang
and Gelb 1996). However, the complex nature of contemporary Chinese culture—
traditional Eastern culture infused with modern Western values—makes it challenging for
Western marketers to connect with the consumers.
There are ample comparative studies investigating cultural values reflected in
Eastern and Western advertising content (e.g., Hsu 1981; Mueller 1987; Cheng and
Schweitzer 1996; Zhang and Gelb 1996; Lin 2001; Ji and McNeal 2001). Systematic
examination of advertising content provides a glimpse into the practice of advertising and,

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more importantly, the consumer culture that it seeks to echo. Most of the previous studies
compared various dimensions of cultural values simultaneously to gather an overall
impression. Only a limited number of studies focused on a single cultural dimension and
explored it in depth. In addition, much of our current understanding of cultural
differences is based on cross-cultural literature from years ago. Since culture is
constantly evolving, there could be changes in dominant cultural values in many
countries (Cho et al 1999). This is especially true given recent developments in modern
communication technologies and today’s highly intertwined global economic systems
(Lin 2001). It seems that an updated look at similarities and differences in cultural value
orientations is needed to facilitate our understanding of today’s global marketplace and
its complexity.
Many cultural dimensions have been identified as effective in delineating cross-
cultural differences, such as individualism/collectivism, time orientation, relationship
with nature, utilitarian/hedonic appeals and modernity and tradition (Cho et al. 1999;
Choi, Lee and Kim 2005; Lin 2001; Muller 1987; Tse, Belk and Zhou 1989; Zhang and
Shavitt 2003). Among these dimensions, individualism and collectivism have always
been considered the most fundamental of them all. Therefore, this study seeks to closely
examine the extent to which these two dimensions are reflected in advertising from two
cultures historically considered as the polar opposites on individualism and collectivism.
Specifically, Triandis’ typology of horizontal/vertical individualism/collectivism is used
to compare the presence of the different types of cultural value orientations in primetime
television commercials in China and the U.S. By contrasting variations in a typical

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individualistic (American) and collectivist (Chinese) culture, the study hopes to observe
cultural changes that are reflected in communication contents.
Comparing Chinese and American Cultures
Cross-cultural studies that compare Western and Eastern cultures often suggest
that the American culture is predominantly individualistic where freedom, self-reliance
and equality are emphasized (Hsu 1981; Lin 2001). Chinese culture, on the contrary, is
often described as collectivistic, emphasizing harmonious interpersonal relationships and
one’s collaboration and responsibility to their social groups (Hsu 1981; Pan et al.1994;
Lin 2001). Yet, as Roberts and Hart (1997) point out, many nations cannot simply be
treated as homogeneous. For example, the U.S. is a highly multicultural society that
consists of Hispanics, Blacks, Asian or Pacific Islanders and many other races. In 2000,
almost one fourth of the 281 million citizens in the U.S. identified themselves as
something other than White alone (2000 Census). Racial diversity inevitably brings
about diversity in value orientations. Numerous content analysis studies have been
devoted to examining diversity representation in U.S. advertising via the use of models,
images, visual cues and languages (Taylor et al. 2005; La Ferle and Lee 2005). Implicit in
these investigations is the assumption that advertising often responds to changes in the
culture.
This trend of merging cultures is also growing throughout various regions of the
world (Roberts and Hart 1997). This is especially true in China where dramatic
economic and socio-cultural changes are taking place everyday. In a longitudinal study,
Tse, Belk and Zhou (1989) found different consumption values in Hong Kong, the
People’s Republic of China, and Taiwan, due to the different levels of economic

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development, political ideology, business training, and philosophy. Additionally, scholars
have indicated that the modernization movement in developing countries often involves
trends of Westernization. This can be seen from the fact that Western models and
standards are often integrated into the Chinese reform system (Ho, 2003; Kang 2004). In
particular, the phenomenal popularity of various American commodities, chain stores,
and pop culture has generated various debates about the “Americanization of China”
phenomenon (Gluckman 1997). Thus a comparative study of Chinese and American
advertising is imperative to investigate the driving force of the evolving consumer culture.
Studies have shown that while the traditional cultural values in Chinese
advertising have remained relatively stable, “modernity”, “technology”, and “youth” have
become major appeals for the younger generation (Lin 2001; Cheng and Schweitzer
1996). Cheng (1994) also found that utilitarian values are used less often, while symbolic
values are used more frequently than in previous years, suggesting a shift in Chinese
advertising appeals. To further explore the changing cultural values reflected in Chinese
advertising, Cheng (1997) conducted a content analysis of 483 Chinese commercials in
1990 and 1995. He found that some Western cultural values, such as modernity and
individualism, as well as traditional Chinese values were more visible in Chinese
commercials in 1995 than in 1990. These changes suggest that contemporary Chinese
advertising may present a “melting pot” of cultural values.
Understanding advertising appeals would provide insights to what is available,
what is endorsed, glamorized, and inevitably reinforced in a culture (Pollay and
Gallagher 1990). It is often an indirect way to gauge the content of a culture.
Researchers have argued that differences in individualism and collectivism cultural

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orientations constitute a major distinction between Chinese and American cultures
(Zhang and Gelb 1996; Lin 2001). Little is known with regard to the details of these
differences in today’s global community. Clearly, a more in-depth framework that will
provide between (etic) as well as within (emic) cultural comparisons is needed.
A Typology of Individualism and Collectivism
Hofstede’s (1980) framework of cultural dimensions has made great contributions
to the theoretical formulation of individualism and collectivism. According to him,
individualism and collectivism could be considered as a conglomeration of values
regarding the relation of an individual to his or her collectivity in a society. In an
individualistic culture, “self” refers to the individual, while in a collectivistic culture
“self” is defined by in-group memberships.
However, traditional cross-cultural comparative studies often assume that the
population of a particular country under examination is homogenous in their value
orientation (Earley and Gibson 2001). While this may be true to a certain extent, the
assumption mainly serves as a mechanism for convenient comparisons. In an effort to
advance the understanding of individualism and collectivism, scholars have suggested
that both individualistic and collectivistic orientations can be found within any given
society at different levels of analysis (Schwartz 1990) or situations (Triandis 1995). This
represents a significant shift concerning the research on individualism and collectivism
conducted since Hofstede’s (1980) popularization of them as a single construct in the
organization literature (Earley and Gibson 2001).
A more in-depth and comprehensive framework of individualism and collectivism
for differential analysis has been developed by Triandis and his colleagues (Triandis 1990;

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1995; Hui and Triandis 1986). Triandis’ (1995) typology employs a two-factor matrix
structure of vertical/horizontal versus individualism/collectivism. The vertical dimension
emphasizes inequality and hierarchy while the horizontal dimension emphasizes equality
and similarity (Triandis 1995). Based on this typology, an individual or a group of
individuals could be classified as horizontal individualist (HI), horizontal collectivist
(HC), vertical individualist (VI) or vertical collectivist (VC). Horizontal individualists
view themselves as equal and consistent with their group members but independent of
one another. Horizontal collectivists are similar to horizontal individualists in terms of
the equity between group members, but they value interdependence among one another
within the group. In contrast, vertical individualists view themselves as unequal,
emphasizing their unique attributes, and independence from one another. Vertical
collectivists, on the other hand, value interdependence among one another while
emphasizing hierarchy and social status within the group. In general, horizontal
individualists are uniqueness oriented and horizontal collectivists are cooperativeness
oriented. Vertical individualists emphasize competition and prize achievement while
vertical collectivists stress dutifulness (Lee and Choi 2005). Table 1 presents a summary
of Triandis’ typology.
Table 1 Typology of Horizontal/Vertical Individualism/Collectivism
Dimension Individualism
Collectivism
Horizontal (HI) Uniqueness
(HC) Cooperativeness
Equality
Equality
Sameness
Sameness
Independence
Interdependence


Vertical
(VI) Achievement
(VC) Dutifulness
Hierarchy
Hierarchy
Uniqueness
Uniqueness

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Independence
Interdependence


This typology breaks away from the traditional single-dimension view of value
orientation in cross-cultural context. For example, both the U.S. and Sweden are
individualistic cultures, but they exhibit different types of individualism. The American
culture emphasizes being excellent and different from others while the Swedes rarely
aspire for uniqueness or high social status (Daun 1996). Swedish culture therefore may be
characterized as high on horizontal individualism which focuses on equality among group
members, while the American culture may be described as high on vertical individualism
which emphasizes social status.
A Content Analysis of Cultural Values in Television Commercials
In the field of advertising, there has been constant scholarly interest in
understanding the relationship between advertising and cultural values. A wide variety of
cultural value dimensions have been used in the analysis of advertising content across
cultures. Among them, individualism and collectivism have been considered as effective
variables for delineating cultural differences (Han and Shavitt 1994; Cho et al; 1999, Lin
2001). Given the changing landscape of the global economy, media technology and
racial diversity, it is necessary to carry out an updated and in-depth investigation of the
similarities and differences between and within cultures based on the key constructs of
individualism and collectivism.
The main goal of this study is to understand to what extent the different types of
horizontal/vertical individualism/collectivism are reflected in advertising in a typical
individualistic (American) and a typical collectivistic (Chinese) culture. Consequently,
the following research questions are raised:

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RQ1. To what extent are the four types of horizontal/vertical
individualism/collectivism reflected in TV commercials targeted toward
the general population in the U.S.?
RQ2. To what extent are the four types of horizontal/vertical
individualism/collectivism reflected in TV commercials targeted toward
the general population in China?
RQ3. To what extent are the cultural values reflected in Chinese TV
commercials different from those in the U.S.?
Research Method
In order to answer the research questions, a content analysis of American and
Chinese television commercials was conducted. This study examined commercials
shown on major Chinese and U.S networks during primetime (from 7PM to 10PM) since
the layout of dayparts in China is similar to that of the U.S. Commercials aired on ABC,
CBS and NBC were selected for the U.S. sample. Two national Chinese television
channels were chosen for this study: CCTV1 and CCTV2 of China Central TV. These
two channels approximate the U.S. commercial broadcast networks and are representative
of the mass market. Both feature news, drama, talk shows, and other entertainment
programs, while only CCTV2 covers variety shows. More importantly, no foreign TV
programs were aired during primetime on these two channels.
For both American and Chinese samples, one week during spring 2004
(January12- January16) of primetime programming was videotaped. There were no
important holidays or events taking place in either country. The time period selected
avoids the Christmas holiday and Chinese New Year (January 22, 2004) such that the

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