Code-Mixing in Biliterate and Multiliterate Irish Literary Texts

Estudios Irlandeses , Number 3, 2008, pp. 29-41
_______________________________________________________________________________________AEDEI
Code-Mixing
in Biliterate and Multiliterate Irish Literary Texts

Tina Bennett-Kastor
Wichita State University

Copyright (c) 2008 by Tina Bennett-Kastor. This text may be archived and redistributed both in
electronic form and in hard copy, provided that the author and journal are properly cited and no
fee is charged for access.

Abstract. Code-mixing and code-switching are common and well-documented processes in the
speech of multilingual persons. Where multilingual persons are also literate in each language,
code-mixing is also possible in writing. Despite conservative pressures which tend to deem only
one of the languages in a linguistic repertoire the prestige variety, and therefore the primary
choice for written expression, multiliterate authors who are able to assume a multiliterate
readership may use two or more languages in their texts. Some theories of code-mixing are here
summarized, along with a review of code-mixing in spoken Irish. Examination of code-mixing
in modern and contemporary Irish literary texts shows that, structurally, written code-mixing is
for the most part similar to what is observed in spoken language. Functionally, however, written
mixing often has wider aims. Because writing is a planned and conscious form of language,
multilingual writers utilize their greater linguistic repertoires strategically by imbuing different
languages with different symbolic meanings. A full appreciation of such texts requires an
understanding not just of the languages involved, but also of their functions in the cultural
environment and the historical, political, and cultural associations with the other languages.
Key words. Multilingual writing, bilingual literacy, bilingual literary texts, written code-
mixing, code-switching.
Resumen. El cambio de lengua y la mezcla de lengua son procesos comunes y bien
documentados en el habla de las personas multilingües. Cuando las personas multilingües son
alfabetizadas en múltiples lenguas, es posible que en la escritura encontremos una mezcla de las
lenguas. A pesar de las presiones conservativas que tienden a considerar como variedad de
prestigio a sólo una de las lenguas en un mismo repertorio lingüístico, y por lo tanto como
primera opción de la expresión escrita, los autores alfabetizados en varias lenguas que son
capaces de captar la atención de lectores también alfabetizados en varias lenguas pueden utilizar
dos o más lenguas en sus textos. Aquí resumidas, encontraréis varias teorías de cambio de
lengua, junto con una revisión de la mezcla de lenguas en irlandés oral. Una revisión de la
mezcla de lenguas en los textos irlandeses modernos y contemporáneos muestra que,
estructuralmente, la mezcla de lengua escrita es, mayoritariamente, similar a lo que se ha
observado en la lengua oral. No obstante, funcionalmente, la mezcla escrita a menudo tiene
objetivos más amplios. Como la escritura es una forma planeada y consciente del lenguaje, los
escritores multilingües utilizan sus mejores repertorios lingüísticos estratégicamente imbuyendo
distintas lenguas con distintos significados simbólicos. Para una apreciación cabal de tales
textos se precisa no sólo la comprensión de las lenguas involucradas sino también de sus
funciones en el contexto cultural, y de sus asociaciones históricas, políticas y culturales con
otras lenguas.
Palabras clave. Escritura multilingüe, alfabetismo bilingüe, textos de alfabetismo bilingüe,
mezcla de lengua escrita, cambio de lengua.
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ISSN 1699-311X

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I. Introduction
consist of insertion, i.e., placing “material
Abundant research has explored language
(lexical items or entire constituents) from
contact and its manifestations in spoken
one language into a structure from the other
language, yet much less has focused on
language”; alternation between different
phenomena associated with language
structures; and congruent lexicalization,
contact in written texts. Nevertheless, in
which places “material from different
many parts of the world, multilingual
lexical inventories into a shared
authors have taken advantage of the greater
grammatical structure” (3). Insertion is akin
linguistic choices available to them and
to spontaneous borrowing; alternation is a
used them artfully, as it were, to convey
“true switch from one language to another,
layers of meaning which will resonate with
involving both grammar and lexicon”; and
their multilingual readers. In situations of
congruent lexicalization occurs when the
language contact, a sizeable portion of the
two languages are sufficiently similar in
population may be multiliterate – literate in
lexicon and/or grammatical structure –
more than one of the languages involved in
perhaps even containing homophonous
the contact. It is this type of literacy which
elements – such that the point of switch is
is inclined to manifest language mixing of
ambiguous (Muysken 2000: 5-6).
various sorts.
Adams et al., working with ancient
Despite the relative neglect of
inscriptions, generated their own list of
multiliteracy and specifically of language
contact phenomena, including some which
mixing in written texts, it is by no means a
are parallel to spoken phenomena. These
recent phenomenon. Adams et al. (2002)
from a continuum of 1) insertion of “ritual
comprises chapters on numerous cases
words, aphorisms, tags” from L1 to L2 text
throughout the ancient world of inscriptions
(7), which is not necessarily indicative of
in which languages have been mixed to one
bilingualism any more than an English
degree or another, in some cases even
speaker’s use of il va sans dire indicates
languages with different scripts. Constant
fluency in French; 2) translation, where two
linguistic and cultural contact in the ancient
(or more) texts appear in the same location,
world produced many cases of code-mixing
both conveying the same meaning – as in
in written form, from funerary inscriptions
the Rosetta Stone –, or “alloglottography”,
and other monuments, on the one hand, to
where the L1 is used “to represent an
texts by such scholars as Pelagonius
utterance in another language (L2) …in
(Langslow 2002: 37) and Cicero (Swain
such a way that the original utterance in L2
2002: 137-138) on the other hand, as well
can be accurately and unambiguously
as in parts of the Bible, e.g., in the Book of
recovered from the document in L1”
Daniel, “mene, mene, tekel, parsin” (5:25,
(Langslow 2002: 44); and 3) diglossia,
NIV ); the Gospel of Mark, “Talitha koum”
where the bilingualism of a text reflects a
(Mk. 5:41, NIV); or the First Letter of Paul
society that is already bilingual, perhaps
to the Corinthians, “Marana tha!” (16:22,
differentiating between high (H) and low
NIV).
(L) varieties, and unfolds according to
functional differentiation, domain, or some
Structural categories of mixing and
other principle.
switching
Functional categories of mixing and
Given the existence of such texts, one must
switching
ask in what circumstances and for what
purposes written mixing is called into play.
While the diglossic principle is in some
Are these similar to what one observes in
ways a functional explanation, what “other
speech? Pieter Muysken has distinguished
principles” might explain an author’s
cases of lexical borrowing from code-
conscious use of material from another
mixing, the use of lexical and/or
language? The literature suggests some
grammatical features from more than one
purposes. The less dominant languages may
language within the same sentence; and
be written, but without formal recognition
code-switching, the “rapid succession of
or the imprimatur of legitimacy. In these
several languages in a single speech event.”
cases, the writer who sneaks nondominant
(1). Code-mixing and switching may
languages into texts – and usually this

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writer is a native speaker of a nondominant
tends to be parallel, and despite the
language – may be performing an act of
potential for robust multiliteracy,
subversion that might even be viewed as a
publication is still overwhelmingly in
kind of treachery. Unlike the conversational
English, albeit with Irish (and occasionally
discourse of multilinguals, in which
other languages) mixed in. Those writers
languages are invariably encroaching upon
who use literate Irish habitually often must
one another in various ways, the written
be subsidized to make up for the limited
word in its conservatism, as symbolic of
market. On the other hand, where the
power and learning, has in history often
continuum of multiliteracy ranges from one
sought to be “pure” of extra- and
extreme of speakers who cannot read or
interlinguistic effects, an idealized language
write in either language, to a middle
which is usually not, or not any longer, a
position of speakers able to write only in
truly native dialect. This subversive use
one language but not the other, to a more
may come to be exploited toward various
typical diglossic multiliteracy in which
ends, as it was in the Spanish-English code-
speakers are (supposedly) biliterate, but the
switching of Latino and Latina writers to
languages are functionally differentiated,
signify their bi-cultural identity (Kraver
Ireland is closer to the diglossic end. Thus,
1997). Another language can also serve as
failure to write in the L variety (here, in one
an assertion of nationalism, particularly
view, Irish) is a constraint easily broken by
where the language in question has had to
innovators. These innovations probably
“go underground”, as it were, in the face of
began first in informal contexts, and were
hegemony from a colonial tongue; or it may
then expanded by a minority of writers into
serve to signify the writer’s identity as
formal works.
“other” than mainstream and a rejection of
In the last two decades the renaissance of
the values associated with the dominant
literature in Irish has reclaimed the older
language; or in some cases the “other”
literary tradition, allowing for an
language may even be a marker of prestige,
examination of 1) whether code-mixing and
as in the case of Cicero’s use of Greek
switching occurs in texts utilizing Irish as
(Swain 2002: 138), or as it would in
the primary code; 2) whether code-mixing
contemporary writings in modern languages
and switching occurs in texts using English
which include portions of Latin and Greek.
as the primary code; and 3) what such
Less dominant languages may also be used
deliberate weaving of English into Irish text
where the text is largely in the H language,
and of Irish into English text represents.
but particular characteristics associated with
Here, we will be examining examples of
the L varieties allow code-switching to
Irish literary texts which exhibit language
transfer these characteristics to a character,
mixing, which are written by multilingual
concept, or event depicted in the text. As
authors (i.e., authors literate in two or more
well, semantic associations with a no longer
languages), and which assume a
dominant language may dictate switching,
multilingual audience and are therefore
as in the case of the Channel islands of
examples of multiliteracy. After briefly
Guernsey and Jersey, where formal and
examining theories and data pertaining to
ceremonial functions, such as legal
code-switching and mixing in spoken
proceedings, required the use of Standard
language, and code-switching in spoken
French, for which an English translation
Irish in particular, we will explore the
then had to be supplied (Price 191). In this
dimensions of mixing in sample texts to
case, the function of the code-switching is
determine which structural categories of
purely historical in nature.
language interaction are fitting for analysis
Multilingualism and Multiliteracy in
of literary language, and what functional
Ireland
categories best allow us to understand the
authors’ purposes in mixing languages.
In Ireland, the sociolinguistic context in
which code-switching and mixing may
II. Code-switching in theory and practice
occur is not yet one of an integrated and full
The linguistic phenomena of code-switching
bilingualism. Except in specific speech
and code-mixing have been examined from
communities, the use of Irish and English
both theoretical and descriptive perspectives

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beginning in the 1960’s when Ferguson
author has both personally observed
published his seminal work on diglossia
speakers switching languages under such
(1959, 1964), noting that “in many speech
conditions and has done so herself.
communities, two or more varieties of the
Code-switching is thus the shifting of an
same language are used by some speakers
individual speaker from one variety—
under different conditions” (1964: 429). In
dialect, language—to another at a distinct
this case, the code-switching involves the
“switch-point” which marks the transition
specialization of different dialects, deemed
from one context to another, as from one
high (H) – i.e., prestigious – and low (L),
type of speech event to another (such as
for different functions, and thus the code-
greetings versus business transaction), one
switching is what Blom and Gumperz
type of participant to another (intimate
termed “situational” (1972: 424) and is
versus superior), or one type of topic to
distinct from code-mixing. Ferguson notes
another. Code-mixing, in contrast, is the use
that such switching has no doubt existed for
of one language in the midst of another
millennia although had been seldom
within a speech event and even within a
mentioned prior to the publication of his
sentence, phrase, or word. It is sometimes
work. “Metaphorical” code-switching is
referred to as “intrasentential switching.”As
also possible. In this case, changes in
noted above, Muysken describes these kinds
situation do not elicit the switch, but rather
of insertions at the word-level as
changes in topic, subject-matter, or social
“spontaneous borrowing,” which must be
event, such as occurs when an exchange of
distinguished from the kinds of borrowed
greetings is in the L variety and is then
words and phrases which are considered a
followed by a business transaction in the H
part of the lexicon even of most
(Blom and Gumperz 1972: 425).
monolingual speakers.
Code-switching may extend past varieties
Descriptions of code-mixing abound,
such as dialects to encompass different
although explanations are rarer. Theories
languages in speech communities which are
have focused on the characteristics of
bi- or multilingual. If one of the languages is
switch-points with the idea, presumably, of
considered prestigious and associated with a
predicting potential code-mixes. Muysken
literary tradition, the languages are summarizes and offers critiques of some of
differentiated functionally and the situation is
these theories. In their specific detail they
known as “extended diglossia” (Fishman
go beyond the purpose of the current work,
1980). Viewing the situation in Ireland as a
relying as they do on elements of
case of such typical functional differentiation
contemporary syntactic theory such as a
is problematic, however, since both English
government and binding framework, but
and Irish have enjoyed a literary tradition at
they do illuminate some of the problems
various points in history. On the other hand,
which must be treated if a adequate
there are multilingual communities which are
explanation of the principles underlying
not diglossic per se, but code-switch for
code-mixing is the be formulated.
purely practical or even polite reasons.

An early attempt at developing
Salisbury (1962) describes the Siane of New
explanatory principles for code-switching
Guinea as people who prize languages and
was Shana Poplack’s (1980) study of
make an effort to learn as many as possible;
Spanish-English switching by a community
they use one language or another according to
of Puerto Ricans. She proposed the notion
circumstances such as the language of the
of linear equivalence: the two languages
person to whom they are talking. The Irish
involved have to have equivalent
might also be viewed as falling into this
grammatical word order both before
category. A third explanation is that code-
immediately before and immediately after
switching may be compensatory, as when
the switch point.
elements of one language substitute for those
This would seem to preclude certain
beyond a person’s fluency in the other (cited
switch locations in Irish-English mixes since
in Leiwo 2002: 172). This explanation of
Irish is verb-initial and English subject-
switching is viewed skeptically by, for
initial, Irish subject and object are adjacent
example, Muysken (2000), although this
but they are separated in English, and Irish

noun phrases are typically in noun-adjective

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order and those of English adjective-noun
Although not a fully adequate theory, the
(but see below). She claimed that code-
MLF model shows what a theory of code-
switching can be defined as the
mixing must take into account. These are
juxtaposition of sentences or parts of
the structural constraints – grammatical or
sentences, each of which is internally
lexical features that make insertion or
consistent with its own language.
alternation at a given point feasible; the
Among the more recent explanations is
sociolinguistic constraints – the conditions
The Matrix Language Frame (MLF) theory
under which, in a given speech community,
of Carol Myers-Scotton (1993; also Myers-
switching or mixing is marked or unmarked;
Scotton and Jake 1995), which includes
and the psycholinguistic constraints – the
sociolinguistic as well as strictly structural
abstract and cognitive representations of
factors. She describes code-switching (in
morphemes belonging to separate languages
many cases, she uses this term to include
as being somehow “congruent” enough to
mixing) as typically being a marked choice,
be mutually substituted.
but the members of a speech community
Muysken’s development of code-
have a shared knowledge of the conditions
switching and mixing explanations utilizes
under which the various codes (here,
the concepts of insertion, alternation, and
languages) are marked or unmarked in
congruent lexicalization. His category of
specific situations. Intrasentential switching
insertional code-switching includes three
tends to reflect situational informality and
properties: the Adjacency Principle that “if
have a positive and unmarked function.
in a code-mixed sentence two adjacent
Structurally, Myers-Scotton distinguishes
elements are drawn from the some language,
between a matrix language (ML) and an
an analysis is preferred in which at some
embedded language (EL). Code-switching
level of representation (syntax, processing)
(mixing) follows either the “morpheme-
these elements also form a unit” (2000: 61);
order principle” or the “system morpheme
that what is switched tends to form a
principle.” The former maintains that is the
constituent, i.e., “any syntactic unit, either a
ML which dictates the order of words or
lexical item (e.g., a noun) or a phrase (e.g., a
morphemes; the latter maintains that the
prepositional phrase)” (61); and finally,
“system” morphemes – i.e., function
switched elements are usually content rather
morphemes – come from the matrix
than function words (63), a property
language and content morphemes may
compatible with both Poplack and Myers-
come from the EL only if they are
Scotton. Alternation is more likely to have
“congruent” with ML content morphemes,
occurred when elements from a language A
i.e., “having the same status in both
both precede and follow an element from a
languages, taking or assigning the same
language B which is not structurally related.
thematic roles, and having equivalent
Muysken argues that length and complexity
pragmatic or discourse functions”
also come into play, since as the number of
(Muysken 2000:17). The EL and ML are
“words the switched element contains”
separated psycholinguistically, however, as
increases, or the more complex the switched
“islands.”
fragment is, the more likely it is to an
The MLF model has been criticized for
alternation rather than an insertion.”
its rigidity of the notion of ML while at the
Furthermore, the “activation of a matrix
same its unclear definitions of system
language” probably “decreases as the
versus content morphemes and of
number of words in the intrusive language is
congruence, and less than full explanation
larger” (97). As for congruent
of psycholinguistic factors such as the
lexicalization, it is more likely to occur in
existence of “compromise strategies” that
speech communities where either “[t]here is
speakers use to avoid incongruencies
an overabundance of homophonous
between the ML and the EL, although other
words…that serve as bridges or triggers for
models have been equally criticized along
the code- mix” or else “[t]here is a general
similar lines” (Muysken 18). In the case of
structural equivalence…without there
Irish-English switching, the ML and EL are
necessarily being any lexical
often somewhat interchangeable.
correspondence” (123). The greater distance

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or dissimilarity there is between one
frequently inserted (170). When adjectives
language and another, the less likely
are inserted, they are usually in predicative
congruent lexicalization is to occur, and in
position, e.g., “Tá mé ag fáil jealous”,
the case of Irish and English it would seem
although some show adjectives within a
to be dispreferred. For Muysken generally,
noun phrase (“Tá carr light green aige”). In
properties of various types of mixing and
the examples cited, the English adjective
switching are more appropriately viewed as
follows the noun as is consistent with Irish
strong tendencies than as inviolable
syntax. Interestingly, the exceptions to this
principles.
are English expletives used adjectivally, i.e.,
Code-switching in spoken Irish
“fuckin’,” “friggin’,” or “bloody” which
precede the noun (171-2). Similarly, there
Despite the long history of language contact
are adverbial switches in initial, medial, and
and bilingualism in Ireland, empirical
final position (e.g., “Just cuir ar an mbord
descriptions of Irish-English (or English-
é”) (172), and, somewhat less frequently,
Irish) code-switching and mixing are almost
prepositional phrases (PPs) with adverbial
nonexistent. Stenson (1990) published what
function (“Ní féidir é a chur as an tír on any
she believed to be the first study of Irish-
account”) (173). Rarest are verbs, although
English code-switching, in this case for the
it is particularly difficult to unambiguously
purpose of both presenting examples and
identify as switches English verbs that are
for testing the various constraints of code-
morphologically assimilated and given the
switching that have been proposed. She
suffix -áil. Only a few examples involved an
maintained that linguistic theory, to be
verb that was clearly English, complete with
adequate, must be able to account for code-
English tense or participial suffixes (173-4).
switching because among bilingual
Finally, English phrases often provided
communities code-switching is “an integral
introductory phrases to Irish complements,
part of the linguistic competence the
as in “You bet go bhfuil sé te” (174).
theories are intended to describe” (168).
The Irish data obey some of the various
Stenson claims that “code-switching by
proposed constraints Stenson examined but
Irish speakers in uni-directional. While
not others. For instance, if the English verbs
ample evidence exists of English within
with Irish morphological suffixes are
Irish discourse, in her data Irish is never
counted as borrowings rather than as
inserted into English discourse (169). She
switches, they are consistent with various
notes, however, that this may have been
proposed constraints, but otherwise not.
true because the people studied only spoke
Adjective data also contradict both
English to those who could not speak Irish
constraints against postnominal adjectives
anyway (194, note 1). Because the Irish
and claims that the language of the adjective
literary texts used for the present study
determines its placement. Stenson found just
include both predominately English texts
one example of an English adjective
and predominately Irish texts, bi-directional
preceding an Irish noun; in every other case
mixing is possible.
the syntax of Irish determined the placement
As virtually the only study of Irish-
of the adjective. Similarly, while Pfaff
English code-switching, Stenson’s findings,
(1979), in a study of Spanish-English data,
where relevant, will here be summarized in
found the switching of whole PPs to be rare,
some detail. In her data, switches between
Stenson’s data showed that locative PPs in
sentences seldom occurred. The few
English were rare but that temporal and
exceptions were cases when an Irish
figurative PPs were fairly commonly
speaker was reporting speech in English
switched. Finally, the Irish speakers tended
and when the addressee was changed from
not to switch for conjunctions, but
one sentence to another (169). These
“complementizers always appear in the
examples may be alternations between the
language of the clause they introduce”
languages. Intrasentential switching is the
Stenson (177-9). She goes on to propose
primary type observed, and it usually
solutions within a government-binding
involves single lexical items which by
context to the unaccounted-for Irish-English
phonological criteria do not appear to be
switches. These are not directly relevant to
borrowings into Irish. Nouns are especially
the purposes of the current work, but

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Stenson does offer the suggestion that an
exhibiting language mixing, there is
adequate theory of code-switching – in fact,
nevertheless no a priori reason to assume
an adequate linguistic theory in general –
they are not a representative sample of bi-
must utilize a broader range of linguistic
and multiliterate literary texts in Ireland. In
data than that from the Germanic and
fact, for each example provided, there were
Romance languages that dominated many
many others of the same type.
earlier attempts to explain code-switching.
Included here are works of fiction in
III. The texts
English: Frank McCourt’s Teacher Man (an
Irish-American offering) from the 21st
The texts examined here which reflect the
century, and Maeve Binchy’s 20th century
mixing of languages are only a small subset
Firefly Summer; poetry in Irish: Cathal Ó
of those which might have been cited (cf.
Searcaigh’s “Do Jack Kerouac” (“For Jack
Bennett-Kastor, in submission, which
Kerouac”) and “Cainteoir Dúchais”
includes others). The methodology by
(“Native Speaker”), and Nuala ni
which the textual data were selected was
Dhomnaill’s “An Crann” (“The Tree”), all
admittedly unorthodox insofar as there is no
late 20th century; drama in English: Brian
single repository of bi- or multilingual
Friel’s 1980 Translations; and also in Irish:
writing in the way in which there are clearly
Antoine ó Flatharta’s 1990 Grásta i
delineated communities of bilingual
Meiriceá.
speakers, and so the author had to rely on
scholars who had wide-familiarity with
Lexical borrowing. As with most dialects
Irish literary works in either Irish or
of English created via contact, Hiberno-
English. During a visit to the Linguistics
English contains a great deal of lexical
Institute of Ireland (ITE) in Dublin over the
borrowing. Irish words, as well as Norman
course of several days, the author explained
French and Early Modern English
the sort of literature which she wished to
expressions, therefore have made their way
examine, asked if anyone knew of any
into work by Irish authors writing in
examples of it, and then was ably assisted
English. As such, the mixing may be in
by two staff members in particular who
some cases simply a dialectal feature. As
immediately knew of such texts and
Muysken and Stenson have both observed, it
supplied several of them. In many cases the
is necessary theoretically but also difficult
texts were held in the Institute’s library; in
to distinguish loanwords which have been
other cases a staff member owned a text in a
fully incorporated into a language from
private collection and provided “spontaneous borrowings,” i.e., insertions.
photocopies. In some cases the text itself
However, if a fluent writer of Standard
was not available, but citations of mixed-
British English uses either Irish or Hiberno-
language passages appeared in secondary
English loanwords for an audience that may
sources. Subsequent to the research at ITE,
be assumed to know neither, the effect is
the author came across several other
perhaps the same as a true insertion.
examples, first-hand or in secondary
Nevertheless, these examples have been
sources. The texts collected dated from the
identified as borrowings (loanwords) rather
17th through the 20th centuries, and included
than insertions on the grounds that they
poetry, drama, fiction, nonfiction, and in
appear in Dolan’s Dictionary of Hiberno-
one case diary entries. Most were in Irish
English (1999).
with English mixing; fewer were clearly
In Frank McCourt’s 2005 memoir
English with Irish mixing (see below). Of
Teacher Man, although published by an
these, the data analyzed here are restricted
American house, we find such examples as,
to works from the late 20th century and the
“I’m hardly old, said my mother, so none of
first few years of the 21st, works which
your plamas” (34) [Ir. plámás, “flattery”],
would have been produced in a
and “Arrah, jaysus, you’re not a yank at all”
sociolinguistic context more conducive to
(158) (< Ir. dhera [interj.], [Dolan 1999:
and familiar with spoken code-mixing and
12], or arú [interj.], [Ó Dónaill 1977: 62]).
switching than in earlier times. Although it
These examples represent the insertion of a
must be assumed that the texts sampled do
noun within a noun phrase and of an
not form the entire collection of works
interjection. In Stenson’s data of English

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36
mixed into Irish, nouns are inserted into
Ansin rinne sé an t-urlár a flasháil
noun phrases, although she provides no
Na fuinneoga a windoleneáil,
examples of the insertion of an interjection
Agus na leapacha a eau-de-cologneáil
– unless it may be considered an adverbial
(Ó Searcaigh 1997: 134), the narrator used
of sorts. Functionally, in each case the
the English slang to say he was “flat-out”
borrowing is in the speech of an Irish
(tired) – an adjectival insertion used
person in a book full of Americans and
predicatively and thus consistent with
Irish-Americans. Maeve Binchy’s Firefly
Stenson’s data –, and throughout each of the
Summer (1988) contains a metalinguistic
following lines are inserted a host of
example: “It’s the poor French children I
English-made cleaning products. These
worry about…she has taught them all to say
appear as verbs derived from the English
pogue mahone [= póg mo thóin, “kiss my
brand name with the Irish verbal noun
arse”]. They think it’s Irish for good
suffix; structurally, these insertions are not
morning” (544-5, noted in Dolan 1999:
unlike those which occur in spoken
202). Here, the structural properties of the
language when a borrowed word becomes
borrowing match those of Stenson’s
fully integrated into the borrowing lexicon,
English-in-Irish examples where the matrix
and Stenson noted that these do not violate
predicate is in one language and the
constraints on insertion as long as they are
embedded complement in the other.
counted as loanwords--although these verbs
Functionally, the borrowing (or possibly
are not clearly integrated into the lexicon of
insertion, although the spelling is
the average Irish speaker. Functionally,
Anglicized) serves – aside from injecting
however, they are intended to mirror the
humor – to demarcate the cultural and
infiltration of English commercialism into
linguistic division between characters. In
Irishness (Tochigi 142).
fact, many of the contemporary Irish writers
In the second stanza, although the narrator
publishing in English insert Irish (or
is tired – here the word is the adjective
possibly Hiberno-English) to indicate that
“shagáilte” and again used predicatively –
the setting or characters or in some cases
nevertheless
theme of a work is specifically associated
rachadh sé amach a chruiseáil;
with Irish, as opposed to English or
b’fhéidir, a dúirt sé, go mbuailfeadh sé
American, culture. It is something like the
le boc inteacht
equivalent of providing “local color” in
a mbeadh Gaeilge aige (134).

fictional work with a specific regional
He intends to go out “cruising,” perhaps
setting.
to meet a “buck” or “playboy” who “would
Insertion (Code-mixing). One of the best-
have Irish”. Again, while the insertions are
known contemporary poets writing in Irish,
not structurally anomalous, they reveal
Cathal Ó Searcaigh, also uses code mixing
functionally an additional layer of meaning,
(and code-switching; see below), sometimes
for the narrator is gay and looking for a tryst
extensively. Possibly his most widely
with another Irish speaker. Now the
known poem is “Cainteoir Dúchais”
ambiguity of shagáilte emerges, because
(“Native Speaker”), turns on its head the
‘shag’ is the root of both the British slang
notion his own generation held in their
term “shagged-out” (tired) and the Hiberno-
youth that Irish and Irish speakers were
English word for having intercourse (Dolan
conservative, rural, and square and English
1999: 236). Code-mixing here thus marks
was associated with liberality, urbanity, and
the narrator as not only an outsider to the
hipness. At the same time, the poem,
urban English world, but as sexually outside
illustrates the uneasiness with which a
the mainstream. In the English translation,
native speaker must swim in a sea of
the last lines read: “he might run into
dominant and capitalistic Englishness. In
someone/ with a cúpla focal” (135), i.e., “a
the first stanza,
few words”, a common Irish phrase used –
Bhí sé flat-out, a duirt sé…
sometimes over-modestly – by those who
Rinne sé an t’árasán a hoovereáil,
know some Irish (Tochigi 2000: 142).
na boscaí bruscair a jeyes-fluideáil,
An additional functional layer that is often
an loo a harpickeáil, an bath a vimeáil.
associated with diglossic speech com-

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37
munities is the result of a “colonialist
about the cut tree. When told, the fairy
construct” whereby those in positions of
woman replied,
political superiority speak the language of
“’ó,’ ar sise, ‘that’s very interesting.’
the colonists, and those occupying the lower
Bhí béim ar an very
realms of the social strata speak the
Bhí cling leis an ‘ing.
language of the colonized. Such a construct
Do lathair sí aná-chúin.”
was built of an extensive collocation of

dichotomies which are invoked whenever
“’Oh,’ she said, ‘that’s very interesting.’
the two languages meet within the same
With a stress on the ‘very’
text. Alastair Pennycook (1998) sets up the
And a ring from the ‘-ing’
Though she spoke very quietly”
dichotomy as that between the “Other”
(Welch 2003: 175-176)
(colonized) and the “Self” (colonists)

alluded to in the Introduction. The Other is
Structurally, this example can be viewed
“named” and “derogated” by the Self (30),
as consisting of either insertion or
literally, as it often involves replacing the
alternation, or of a combination of both.
native names of places, people, and things
“That’s very interesting” is a complete
with the colonists’ name. The Self is
clause which could be similar to the Binchy
enlightened, modern, civilized, Christian (in
example of the “pogue mahone” insertion;
Ireland’s case, Protestant), rational, male,
however, in this case it may be viewed as an
and speaking a European language. The
alternation since it represents a switch
Other is savage, primitive, backward,
between speakers – the poet versus the fairy.
heathen (or Catholic), irrational, female,
Again, it is not unusual, as compared to
and speaking some “other” language. The
spoken code-switching, for the point of
British felt it their “moral duty” to
switch to represent different speakers,
“enlighten” the other (48). And while Irish
although one must wonder why a fairy
is just as European a language as English,
woman is speaking in English. Certainly
the power of the colonial construct was
there are phonological considerations: the
such that the native Irish were persuaded
“ring from the -ing” perhaps evoking the
that they were not European, not modern,
sound of the chain-saw. This example may
not civilized, and not worthy. Thus did
be relevant to the issue of matrix versus
many, especially in the North, voluntarily
embedded language, which can be a
give up their language in exchange for
problematic distinction for the situations
“success, culture, and literacy”, thereby
such as the one in Ireland where both
strengthening the association of Irish “with
languages have a literary tradition and both
poverty, backwardness, and lack of
are used in published works. The matrix
opportunity” (Zwickl 2002: 21). It is this
language of the poem can be said to be Irish,
construct which allows ó Searcaigh to
insofar as most of it is in Irish, and the
associate homosexuality with the “other”
function or “system” morphemes are in
language (Irish) and English with modern
Irish; in this case, then, English may
civilization and thereby utilize metaphorical
represent the other-worldliness of the
rather than strictly situational code-
speaker, since fairies come from another
switching/mixing.
realm of existence but are also creatures to
Alternation (code-switching). Irish can also
be feared.
be seen to alternate with English at the
Ó Searcaigh, too, uses code-switching or
larger structural levels of one or more
alternation in addition to insertion. His
sentences, indicating code-switching, which
poem “Do Jack Kerouac” (“For Jack
may also functionally invoke the colonial
Kerouac”) describes his fascination with and
dichotomies as well. In the contemporary
dreams about the Beat generation (Bhí mé
poem, “An Crann” (“The Tree”) by Nuala
hookailte ort – “I was hooked on you”)
Ní Dhomhnaill, a fairy woman cuts down a
which began in 1973. He writes of heading
tree, infuriating the husband of the woman
out on the highways of America:
who narrates the poem. The fairy comes “le
“’Hey, man, you gotta stay high,’ a
(‘with a’) Black & Decker”, and later asks
déarfainn le mo chara agus muid ag
the narrator what her husband had said
Freakáil trí California….” (1983: 188)

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38
“Hey man, you gotta stay high”, I will
This example contains both switching and
say to my friend, and we freaking through
mixing. All the stage directions, as well as
California.” Throughout the poem, both
the commentary of Finnbarr to the other
insertions and alternations are compatible
character, Seán, are in Irish, with the words
with what Stenson observed structurally
of the postcards in English. These
among Irish speakers. They insertions and
alternations are based on the addressee – the
alternations exhibit identification, even
actors and directors in the case of stage
infatuation, with an artist and a movement
directions and the other (Irish-speaking)
which were decidedly young, American,
character in the case of the commentary; but
and embodied in American English.
(curiously) the words to the family at home
Playfully alliterative mixes and switches
in the Gaeltacht are in English. This is a
evoke the tone and the particulars of the
clear type of situational code-switching; the
era: “booze,
bop,
agus Búdachas”
function of the English directed to an Irish
(”Buddhism”); “marijuana agus audience symbolizes Finnbarr’s rather more
misteachas i Meicsico” (“marijuana and
“eager and ambitious,” in Murphy’s words
mysticism in Mexico”). But the journey “on
(2006:1), approach to America, in contrast
the road” eventually leads back to
to Seán’s more guarded attitude. Finnbarr
“seanaoise is na scoilteacha” (“old age and
shows off his cúpla focal English, as it
rheumatism”), and the poet’s parting words
were, risking “linguistic and cultural jet-lag
are “Is ansin, goddammit, a Jack, beidh
once the card returns to its gullible Irish
muid beirt ag síolshiúl sa tsíoraíocht”,
reader” (2).
“And then, goddammit Jack, we’ll both be
On the other hand, the English of “extra
hitchhiking into eternity” (190, my
just in case” is peculiar. Although the
translation). Again, the matrix language
English adjective follows the noun, as
may be said to be Irish: Irish represents a
dictated by Irish word-order, the English
majority of the words in the poem, most of
continues into the next intrasentential
the functional morphemes are Irish, and ó
constituent, in a manner not attested to in
Searcaigh claims he writes in Irish and not
Stenson’s data. Muysken categorizes such a
in English. Yet some fairly large structural
case where a sentence begins with language
elements appear in English, and the mixing
A then ends with language B as an
of the two languages within the cohesive
alternation and presents a similar example
alliterative phrases suggests that the author
which he explains by the earlier use of B
is freely alternating between two languages
acting as a trigger for the latter. Given the
which, in the context, are equally activated.
“pre-fabricated” nature of Finnbarr’s
A third example, one that is quite clearly
English, however, one would not think his
intersentential code-switching, comes from
bilingualism to be sufficiently developed to
ó Flatharta’s play Grásta i Meiricea (1990),
produce alternation. Regardless of this
the theme of which is the relationship
single example of an unlikely alternation,
between the worlds of Ireland and America
Murphy claims that Finnbarr and Seán’s
– and of the Irish and English languages –
code-switching in the play “literally and
for two illegal immigrants from Ireland who
figuratively presents their own transience.”
are making a pilgrimage to Elvis Presley’s
It is thus a metaphorical use of switching.
former estate, Graceland, in Nashville, TN.
Congruent lexicalization. For congruent
One of the characters, Finnbarr, is penning
lexicalization to occur, similarity of
a postcard back home:
grammatical structure or lexicon is required.
Ní creifidh said go deo é nuair a
Irish grammatical structure is considerably
fheichfidh said na postcards seo. (Ag
different from that of English, although
scriobh go mall) ‘Howdy Partner. I’m
there are situations in which words and
sitting in a bar in Nashville
phrases overlap, in part because a certain
Tennessee’…cé mead ‘e’ I
amount of English consists of loan
Tennessee?...caithfidh mé isteach ceann
translations from Irish. More common in
extra just in case… ‘The weather is very
hot. I have to go, Dolly Parton is looking
Irish literature is a metaphorical congruency
for me. Wish you were here.’
in which English-speaking characters are
(Ó Flatharta 1990: 43, cited in Murphy 2006:2)
assumed to be saying the same thing, but

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