Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats

Purdue extension
AS-595-W
Animal Sciences
Common Diseases and Health
Problems in Sheep and Goats
Lynn Pezzanite, Animal Sciences Student, Purdue University
Dr. Michael Neary, Extension Small Ruminant Specialist, Purdue University
Terry Hutchens, Extension Goat Specialist, Univ. of Kentucky
Dr. Patty Scharko, Extension Veterinarian, University of Kentucky
A sound management program to keep animals
Animals should exhibit a healthy hair coat or fleece,
healthy is basic to production of both sheep and
while maintaining a body condition score appropriate
goats. Producers must observe animals closely to
to their production stage. Both coat and body condition
keep individual animals and the whole herd or flock
score are good indications of nutritional adequacy and
healthy and productive. If the heath status of a herd is
overall health. Signs of an unhealthy animal include
compromised, that operation will not be as efficient as
isolation from the rest of the herd/flock, abnormal
possible.
eating habits, depression, scouring or diarrhea,

There are some human health risks when dealing
abnormal vocalization, teeth grinding, or any other
with diseased animals. While most diseases affecting
abnormal behavior.
sheep and goats do not pose any human health risks,
some are zoonotic and it is important to protect not
Prevention of Disease
only caretakers, but anyone else that may come in
Biosecurity begins with the goal of preventing the
contact with diseased animals.
spread of infectious agents from infected to susceptible

Sheep and goats share many health problems.
animals. A biosecurity plan must take into account
While there are some important differences between
all modes of transmission, including direct animal
the species, this publication gives a broad overview of
contact within a herd, contact with wild animals or
diseases and health problems. For further information
other domesticated species, airborne transmission,
on specific diseases, references and sources of
contaminated feed or water, and visitors or vehicles
additional information are available at the end of this
that come onto the farm.
document.

The most basic method of disease control in
individual herds/flocks is to avoid introduction of
Evaluating Animal Health Status
disease agents. If possible and practical, producers
To recognize clinical signs of diseases common to
should keep a closed herd/flock. Most diseases of
sheep and goats, it is important to be familiar with
a contagious nature are introduced into operations
what is normal. Producers should assess the herd or
when new animals are added. Disease agents can
flock’s general health on a regular basis, including
be introduced when breeding animals are added
vital signs, body condition, and coat.
to an operation; when animals co-mingle at a fair,

A normal temperature range for sheep and goats is
show or sale; or when animals contact wildlife. If a
between 101.5°F and 103.5°F. The respiration rate for
closed herd/flock is not feasible, then use an animal
sheep and goats is about 12 to 15 breaths per minute
quarantine program. A useful isolation program
(depending on environmental temperature), and heart
consists of a facility that prevents co-mingling of
rate should be between 70 and 80 beats per minute.
animals for at least 30 days, including separate water
supplies.
Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service, West Lafayette, IN 47907

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Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats — AS-595-W

Restricting traffic in and out of a facility can
Vaccination Programs
reduce the potential introduction of pathogenic agents.
Vaccinating the herd/flock can provide some insurance
Producers should minimize the number of people and
against specific common diseases. However, each
vehicles that enter premises or require a sanitation and
vaccination program must be tailored to an individual
disinfectant plan to prevent spread of disease agents.
operation. It is also important that producers

Other important management tasks that can
understand what they are vaccinating for and why
prevent or help minimize disease issues are sanitation
it is important. This is another instance where a
of facilities (especially shared livestock trailers), good
veterinarian’s assistance can be critical.
ventilation or air turnover, proper stocking or animal

Just because there is a vaccine available for a
density rates, and a good nutrition program.
specific disease does not mean producers should use
it. There should be economic or other justification to
Utilizing a Veterinarian
vaccinate for specific diseases. Producers should work
Many sheep and goat producers complain that they
through the risk factors and other control programs
cannot find a veterinarian who is knowledgeable or
with a veterinarian and decide whether or not it makes
interested in sheep and goats. Some veterinarians are
sense to vaccinate.
very interested in small ruminants and act as important

The clostridial vaccines are the only ones that
resources for producers. Producers share some of the
can be recommended on a blanket basis for almost all
blame for not attracting knowledgeable animal health
sheep and goats. All other vaccination programs need
professionals to practices that include sheep and goats.
to be developed specific to a herd/flock.
Too often, producers only utilize a veterinarian when

Sheep and goats should be vaccinated for
they have an emergency. Often, these emergency
Clostridium perfringens Types C and D and tetanus
situations do not turn out as successfully as the
(CD&T) at appropriate times. Combination vaccines
veterinarian or the producer would like.
(7- and 8-way) are also available against other

However, producers can adopt strategies to attract
clostridial diseases, such as blackleg and malignant
a veterinarian to service their animal-health needs.
edema. These vaccines are inexpensive, and when used
First they should cultivate a relationship with the
properly, are very effective in preventing losses.
veterinarian as a trained professional to help in whole-

Clostridial diseases are endemic to all sheep and
herd health maintenance and not just as a source of
goat operations. They are caused by specific bacteria
free information or emergency service. Proactive
that commonly live in the gut and manure of sheep and
management tasks such as breeding soundness exams
goats and, under specific conditions, can affect both
on rams or bucks, tailoring a vaccination program to
sheep and goats. More information on these diseases
the producer’s farm, purchasing supplies and vaccines
will be discussed in the next section.
from the vet, and using their services for other animals

When handling vaccinations, it is important to
such as household pets are just a few examples.
follow label directions, as vaccines must be stored,
Additionally, producers can work together to obtain
handled, and administered properly. Only healthy
services from a veterinarian. Producers who coordinate
livestock should be vaccinated.
with other sheep and goat producers in a geographic
region are more likely to attract the attention of a
Clostridial Diseases
veterinarian who is interested in sheep and goats.
Enterotoxemia Type C, or bloody scours, can occur in

Advice and treatment from a veterinarian is almost
two distinct forms. The first form, known as struck,
an absolute in preventing and controlling health
is seen in adults that do not normally exhibit clinical
problems in a herd/flock. Veterinarians can recommend
signs. Ulcerations of the small intestine are noted upon
vaccination programs; help with parasite control
necropsy. The second form, known as enterotoxic
programs; assist with reproductive management; deal
hemorrhagic enteritis, occurs in lambs or kids within
with emergency situations; prescribe drugs that may
the first few days of life. It causes an infection of
be useful, but are not approved for sheep or goats; do
the small intestine, resulting in bloody diarrhea or
necropsies on dead animals; and perform a host of
sometimes death without clinical signs. Enterotoxemia
other important management tasks.
is often related to indigestion. It is predisposed by an
overabundance of milk, possibly due to the loss of a
twin. The risk of enterotoxemia can be reduced with
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Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats — AS-595-W
adequate hygiene at parturition, such as eliminating

Soremouth results in loss of condition, depressed
dung or dirt tags in the wool and cleaning udders.
growth rates, increased susceptibility to other diseases,

Enterotoxemia Type D, also known as pulpy
and death by starvation, since affected animals are
kidney or overeating disease, is seen more frequently
less willing to eat while the infection persists. The
in sheep than goats. It can occur in lambs less than two
most serious problem with sore mouth, however, is
weeks old, those weaned in feedlots, those on high
in susceptible lactating females that have never been
carbohydrate diets, or sometimes in animals on lush
infected or vaccinated, as they can get the lesions
green pasture. It normally affects the largest, fastest-
on the teats. This makes it painful for them to allow
growing lambs or kids. A sudden change in feed causes
their offspring to nurse, which can lead to premature
this organism, which is already present in the gut, to
weaning and even mastitis. There is a commercial
reproduce quickly, resulting in a toxic reaction. In
vaccine available. Normally, the infection will resolve
some cases, animals exhibit uncoordinated movements
itself in one to four weeks, with immunity lasting for
and convulsions before death.
several years.

Tetanus, or lockjaw, is caused by Clostridium

Soremouth is transmitted by direct contact with
tetani, when the bacteria gains entry to the body
affected animals or contact with equipment, fences,
through a contaminated break in the skin. Most cases
feed, and bedding that have been exposed to the virus.
of tetanus in sheep are secondary to tail docking and
The condition will resolve on its own, but can be
castration, especially when rubber bands are used
treated topically with iodine/glycerin solution. It is
in the process. Animals with tetanus become rigid,
important to not use a brush or other utensil to rub or
exhibit muscle spasms, and eventually die. Treatment
abrade the area of a sore mouth lesion as it will spread
is usually unsuccessful, but the disease can be
it further on the face or other tissue. Often, the best
prevented with vaccination and good hygiene. Tetanus
way to deal with sore mouth lesions is to leave them
can be transmitted to humans, so care should be taken
alone and let them clear up over time. If flies or other
when handling an outbreak.
insects are a concern, treat the affected area with an

It is important to vaccinate, especially with CD&T,
insecticide.
at appropriate times to utilize the vaccine to the
herd’s best advantage. If ewes and does have not been
vaccinated with CD&T before, or if more than a year
has passed since their last vaccination, they should be
vaccinated twice with CD&T, with the last vaccination
occurring 20 days before parturition. They would
then only need one annual booster in subsequent
years about 30 days before lambing/kidding. The
vaccination 30 days before parturition will confer
passive immunity to the offspring via the colostrum.
These maternal antibodies will protect the offspring
for five to eight weeks. Lambs and kids should then be
vaccinated at six to eight weeks, and given a booster
shot two to four weeks later.
Soremouth
Soremouth, also known as contagious ecthyma, is a
viral skin disease. The condition is caused by a Pox
virus that requires a break in the skin to enter the
body. Clinical signs of a soremouth infection include
scabs or blisters on the lips, nose, udder and teats, or
sometimes at the junction of the hoof and skin of the
These sheep have soremouth.
lower leg.
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Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats — AS-595-W

It is important for handlers to wear gloves when

Internal Parasites. Several types of internal
dealing with soremouth, as the virus is contagious
parasites affect sheep and goats, and all sheep and
to humans. When humans contract sore mouth, it
goats have a low level of parasite activity. However,
is termed orf. It can cause painful and contagious
excessively high parasite levels are often detrimental
lesions on the skin, very often on the hands or fingers.
to the health of the animal. The most common
Care should be taken when handling animals with
internal parasite is the roundworm that lives in the
soremouth, handling animals that have been recently
abomasum and small intestine of sheep and goats.
vaccinated, and handling the vaccine.
There are several types of roundworms that infect

The vaccine is a live virus that, when applied,
sheep and goats, including Telodorsagia (Ostertagia)
actually causes the disease locally. The live vaccine for
circumcincta, Haemonchus contortus,
soremouth will cause soremouth lesions at a specific
and Trichostrongylus colubriformis.
location on the body chosen by the handler. A hairless

The most dangerous parasite affecting sheep and
area of the animal, such as the inside of the ear, under
goats is the gastrointestinal roundworm Haemonchus
the tail, or inside of the thigh, is scratched, and the
contortus, also known as the barber pole worm. This
vaccine is applied to this area. Because the vaccine is a
voracious bloodsucking parasite has a tremendous
live virus, it is important to only vaccinate for the virus
capacity to reproduce through egg-laying. Clinical
if it is already present in the herd, as it will introduce
signs include anemia (pale mucous membranes),
the virus if it is not already there. Producers that
edema, protein loss, and death. Animals suffering from
have closed herds/flocks and don’t have sore mouth
Haemonchus contortus become weak and lethargic,
probably have no need to vaccinate for sore mouth.
often straggling at the back of the herd when driven a
Once soremouth is introduced to an operation, either
distance. Edema, or the accumulation of fluid under
from vaccination or other means, it usually returns
the skin, is usually seen as a swelling of the lower jaw,
yearly to susceptible animals.
a condition known as bottle jaw.

Tapeworms can cause weight loss, unthriftiness,
Internal and External Parasites
and gastrointestinal upset. A tapeworm infection can
For more in-depth information on parasites, refer
be diagnosed by yellowish-white segments in the
to Purdue and Kentucky Extension Publication AS-
feces. Lambs and kids become resistant to tapeworms
573-W on Managing Internal Parasitism in Sheep and
quickly, so infections are most common in animals
Goats.
younger than four or five months of age. The biggest

Parasites pose a significant threat to the
problem with tapeworms is that producers can actually
health of small ruminants. Parasites can damage
see the segments in fecal matter and can become
the gastrointestinal tract, and result in reduced
overly concerned. Infections by other internal parasites
reproductive performance, reduced growth rates; less
are more serious than a mild tape worm infection.
productive animals in terms of meat, fiber and milk;

Coccidia are protozoan parasites that damage the
and even death.
lining of the small intestine. Since the small intestine

General clinical signs that an animal is suffering
is an important site of nutrient absorption, coccidia
from a parasitic infestation include diarrhea, weight
can cause weight loss, stunted growth, and diarrhea
loss or reduced weight gain, unthriftiness, loss of
containing blood and mucous. Other clinical signs
appetite, and reduced reproductive performance.
include dehydration, fever, anemia, and breaking of
Factors that may affect an individual’s susceptibility to
wool or hair. Fly strike and secondary infections can
parasitism include natural genetic resistance, age, and
also result from coccidiosis. Coccidia are usually
reproductive stage.
found in animals in confinement or intensive grazing

Goats are generally more susceptible to internal
systems, as a result of poor sanitation, overcrowding,
parasites than sheep. The groups most susceptible
and stress. Animals between one and six months
to parasitism are young animals, lactating ewes and
of age in feedlots or intensive grazing systems
does, and those in late gestation or around the time of
are at highest risk for coccidiosis. Outbreaks of
parturition. The animals least susceptible to parasites
coccidiosis can be controlled by implementing good
are mature, dry ewes.
sanitation techniques, providing clean water, rotating
pastures, and avoiding overstocked pens. Outbreaks
of coccidiosis can be treated with sulfa drugs.
Coccidiostats can be administered to inhibit coccidial
reproduction.
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Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats — AS-595-W

Anthelmintics are drugs that either kill egg-laying

The many species of lice that parasitize sheep
adults or kill larvae before they grow into adults
and goats are generally divided into chewing lice and
and become capable of laying eggs. An anthelmintic
sucking lice. Chewing lice feed from dead skin cells,
is normally administered as an oral drench, a thick
while sucking lice feed by sucking blood. Lice can
liquid suspension deposited at the back of the animal’s
be detected by the presence of their eggs, called nits,
tongue. There are challenges associated with using
which are not susceptible to insecticides. Sheep or
anthelmintics, since few are approved by the FDA for
goats exhibiting wool or hair loss should be checked
use in small ruminants (although many are safe), and
for nits. Chewing lice are eradicated with pour-on
resistance to the drugs can develop due to overuse and
topical insecticides, while sucking lice can be treated
improper dosing. Fecal Egg Count (FEC) Tests can be
with specific anthelmintics that control them.
done to determine when it is necessary to deworm, and

Keds pierce the skin and suck blood, and are
to help determine the level of pasture contamination.
usually found on the neck, shoulders, and flanks.

A system known as FAMACHA has been
Ked bites are very irritating to sheep, causing them
developed to identify those animals affected by
to scratch, rub, and bite themselves, which damages
Haemonchus that require anthelmintic. In this method,
the wool. Keds also cause wool discoloration, which
producers observe the color of the conjunctiva of the
further reduces the value of the fleece. Ked bites
lower eyelid to determine the level of anemia that an
affect the hide quality as well. Shearing sheep will
animal is experiencing. The goal of FAMACHA is to
remove most adult keds and larvae, and is especially
delay resistance by only selectively treating animals in
important before lambing. Further treatment with
a herd that are showing signs of a parasitic infection.
pour-on insecticides after shearing or injection of
Sheep and goat producers should be trained in the use
Ivermectin are both effective methods to wipe out a
of the FAMACHA system as it can reduce the need for
ked infestation.
anthelmintic use and delay anthelmintic resistance.

Unlike lice and keds, mites burrow beneath the

External parasites may damage the fleece and
skin instead of living on the surface. This irritates the
reduce pelt value. Parasites common to sheep or goats
skin, causing the sheep and goats to itch, which results
include lice, keds, and mites. External parasites are
in wool or hair loss and lesions or scabs. Mange can
especially common in the winter when sheep or goats
be diagnosed by doing a skin scraping. Administering
are in closer confinement. Pour-on treatments are
injectable Ivermectin or topical insecticides can help
a common form of management for many external
affected animals.
parasites, and are more effective on shorn sheep or
short-haired goats.
Respiratory Problems
Respiratory infections, or pneumonia, are a common
and serious disease in sheep and goats. A number of
different types of pneumonia complexes affect sheep
and goats. Many times, a combination of viral and
bacterial agents infect the lungs as a result of stress
such as weaning, transport, change of weather, poor
air quality (high ammonia in confinement or dusty
conditions in corrals), or a combination of factors.

Clinical signs of pneumonia include fever with a
temperature over 104°F, along with a moist, painful
cough and dyspnea (difficulty breathing). Anorexia
and depression may also be observed in an animal
suffering from pneumonia. Treatment of pneumonia
upon diagnosis involves administration of antibiotics.
Because there are different types of pneumonia, it is
important to work with a veterinarian to identify the
This picture shows a goat with bottle jaw, a symptom of parasitic
type of pneumonia present and determine the most
infection. Photo courtesy of Dr. Ray Kaplan, DVM, University of Georgia
effective treatment.
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Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats — AS-595-W

To reduce the incidence of pneumonia, it is

Clinical signs of foot scald include redness and
important to implement optimal sanitation and
inflammation between the toes and a bad odor. In
air quality practices in herd housing. Making sure
advanced cases, the hoof horn becomes under run
buildings have adequate ventilation and reducing dust
and actually can separate from the hoof wall. Foot
are very important. Any environmental condition that
scald and footrot can cause lameness, reduced weight
irritates the lungs gives infectious agents a chance to
gain as animals are less willing to move to feed, and
affect the animal. Minimize transportation stress, and
decreased reproductive capabilities. These conditions
quarantine new animals before introducing them to
result in production losses, treatment and prevention
the rest of the herd to prevent the spread of outside
costs, premature culling, and reduced sale value of
pathogens. Provide good nutrition and water, and
infected animals.
supplement with trace minerals to enhance immune

Both sheep and goats are susceptible to footrot.
function as necessary. For more in-depth information
Moreover, some of the different strains of D. nodosus
on footrot, refer to Purdue and Kentucky Extension
affect both animal species. In general, goats are
publication AS-596-W, Footrot in Sheep and Goats.
usually less severely affected by footrot than are sheep.

Footrot commonly appears on a farm when an
Foot Scald / Footrot
infected sheep or goat is brought into the herd. The D.
Footrot is a bacterial infection prevalent in warm,
nodosus bacteria can not live in the environment for
moist areas. Footrot is caused mainly by the
more than about 14 days, so almost always, the source
synergistic action of the bacteria Fusobacterium
of the bacteria in an unaffected herd/flock is a carrier
necrophorum and Dichelobacter nodosus. The
animal. Footrot occurs more commonly when feet
D. nodosus bacteria can cause various degrees of
are not trimmed frequently enough and in crowded
involvement of the sole. Footrot can have a range of
housing situations. Some individuals are genetically
clinical signs, depending on the specific strain(s) of D.
more susceptible than others, and 5 to 10 percent of
nodosus present.
infected sheep become chronic carriers of footrot.

Foot scald infects only the area between the toes
These animals should be culled to prevent them from
and often clears up quickly with treatment or with
re-infecting the rest of the herd.
improving environmental conditions. Virulent footrot

While not as likely as with carrier animals, footrot
is much more of a problem, as the bacteria enter the
can also be spread on boots, tires, feeders, or handler’s
hoof and digest the hard, horny tissue of the sole that
hands, so care must be taken if footrot is present in
protects the fleshy tissue of the hoof. Virulent footrot
the herd. Producers should not purchase animals with
in sheep and goats causes much economic loss and
footrot or from infected flocks, and should not use
increased management effort. Once it infects a herd/
areas or vehicles that infected sheep have inhabited.
flock, it is difficult to eradicate.
Quarantine any new additions to the herd for 30 days,
and trim feet before introducing them to the other
animals.

To prevent footrot, it is absolutely imperative to
avoid the introduction of the disease to a footrot-free
herd/flock. Other management tasks that help maintain
good foot health include regular hoof trimming and
sound nutrition. Foot soaking baths using zinc sulfate
can be constructed to treat footrot in conjunction
with systemic treatment. Vaccines are effective 60
to 80 percent of the time, and can be used with other
management practices to reduce the prevalence of
footrot. A combined treatment plan of foot trimming,
foot baths, vaccination, and antibiotic treatment (for
the most severe cases), can be effective in controlling
the physical clinical signs of footrot. To eliminate
footrot from the herd takes a dedicated and labor-
This picture is of a goat with foot scald. Photo Courtesy of UK and KSU
intensive plan of action that includes treating animals,
Goat Producers Newsletter, December 2008.
separating infected from non-infected animals, and
culling of animals that can not be cured.
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Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats — AS-595-W
Caseous Lymphadenitis
through the pasteurization of milk before consumption.
Caseous lymphadenitis (CL) is a condition that affects
A vaccine for this disease is available in two
the lymphatic system, resulting in abscesses in the
forms. The first is a toxoid for the bacteria causing
lymph nodes and internal organs. When it affects
CL alone, and the second can be combined with the
the internal organs, CL becomes a chronic wasting
CD-T vaccine. The vaccine works best in animals that
disease, with economic losses due to reduced hide
do not already show signs of CL infection. Do not
value and carcass trimming. CL can also result in
vaccinate for CL in the last trimester of pregnancy
decreased weight gain, wool growth, milk production,
to avoid vaccine-induced abortions. The vaccination
and reproductive capabilities. Affected animals are
does not treat for existing infections; animals must
often culled early and may die.
be vaccinated prior to exposure for the vaccine to be

Caseous lymphadenitis is caused by the bacteria
effective. The use of this vaccine is controversial, and
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis. An abscess
producers should seek the advice of a veterinarian
can develop either at the location where the bacteria
before making it a part of their herd management
enters the body or at a lymph node nearby. From
program. It does not provide complete protection, so
there, the infection can spread through the blood
cases will still occur on a farm infected with CL, but
or lymphatic system, causing abscesses to form in
the incidence will decrease.
other lymph nodes or internal organs throughout the
body. The organs most commonly affected are lung,
Listeriosis
liver, kidneys, and their associated lymph nodes.
Listeriosis is a bacterial infection caused by the
Abscesses, though not painful, grow slowly over time,
bacteria Listeria monocytogenes. Natural reservoirs for
and may rupture if close to the skin. The disease is
the bacteria are the soil and the GI tracts of mammals.
spread by direct contact with an infected animal or
Sheep and goats usually ingest L. monocytogenes by
through contaminated equipment or a contaminated
grazing pastures contaminated by feces containing the
environment.
bacteria. The bacteria can also gain entry to tissue via
wound or inhalation.

Listeriosis is also a concern when animals are
consuming ensiled forages such as haylage or corn
silage. Try to not feed the moldy portion of silage to
animals and limit soil contamination when putting up
silage, as listeriosis is most prevalent in the soil and in
molded areas of silage.

Listeriosis can result in abortion, septicemia,
or meningoencephalitis. Clinical signs of listeriosis
include anorexia, depression, disorientation, facial
paralysis, excessive salivation, and in severe cases,
affected animals may fall on their sides and exhibit
This sheep has caseous lymphadenitis. Photo Courtesy of Dr. Justin
involuntary running movements. Abortions due to
Luther, Ph.D., and Dr. Charlie Stoltenow, DVM, North Dakota State
L. monocytogenes usually occur during the third
University
trimester of gestation, and may occur at a rate of up
to 20 percent in affected sheep flocks. Encephalitis
and abortion do not usually occur simultaneously in a

While infected animals may show no clinical
flock.
signs, CL can cause anemia, anorexia, weight loss, and

L. monocytogenes affects sheep and goats of all
fever. Caseous lymphadenitis is a significant human
ages and both sexes. Onset is fast, and death may
health risk as well, since it has zoonotic potential.
occur 24 to 48 hours after onset of clinical signs.
The disease can be contracted by humans through
Diagnosis of listeriosis is confirmed by isolation and
consumption of raw milk from infected sheep and
identification of L. monocytogenes, usually from the
goats, or if humans come in contact with infected
cerebrospinal fluid. Bacteria have also been isolated
carcasses and the bacteria enters a break in the skin.
from nasal discharge, urine, feces, and milk of affected
The spread of CL to humans can be prevented by
animals.
reduced contact with contaminated objects, and
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Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats — AS-595-W

Listeriosis should be treated aggressively with

If ewes or does contract toxoplasmosis early
high doses of penicillin or tetracycline, along with
in gestation, they usually reabsorb the fetus. When
supportive therapy, including fluids and electrolytes.
infected later in gestation, abortions are common.
As L. monocytogenes can be transmitted to humans
Toxoplasma abortions are unique in that Toxoplasma
who handled aborted lambs or kids, or during necropsy
is a protozoan parasite, not a bacterim, so the manner
of septicemic animals, precautions should be taken.
in which ewes are infected is different. Toxoplasma
While cases of human listeriosis are rare, mortality
is a parasite of cats and rodents, who shed the agent
rates can be as high as 50 percent, and there is the
into the environment (hay or feed) through their
risk of abortion for pregnant women who contract the
feces, where it can be ingested by sheep or goats.
bacteria.
The only treatment for toxoplasmosis is prevention.
It is important for producers to cover stored feed and
Abortive Diseases
discourage stray cats from hanging around barns that
Abortion refers to a female losing her offspring during
house gestating ewes or does. Feeding a coccidiostat,
pregnancy or giving birth to weak or deformed babies.
such as Monensin or Decoquinate, mixed into feed
Abortions can be due to infectious or non-infectious
can also be effective in preventing abortion due
agents. Non-infectious abortions can be caused by
to toxoplasmosis. Not all coccidiostats are FDA-
trauma such as fighting or rough handling, but are
approved for sheep and goats, so a veterinarian should
much less common. The main infectious agents
be consulted if this method is considered, as several
that cause abortion in sheep and goats are Vibriosis
can be effective.
(Campylobacter), Chlamydia (also known in sheep as

Leptospirosis, caused by the bacteria Leptospira
Enzootic Abortion of Ewes or EAE), Toxoplasmosis,
interrogans, can cause abortion in goats, though sheep
and Leptospirosis to a lesser extent. In addition,
are less susceptible. It is generally transmitted when
Border disease virus, Cache Valley virus, Listeria,
animals come into contact with standing water, such
and Salmonella have been known to cause abortion
as a lake or pond, with the bacteria. Clinical signs
in sheep and goats in specific regions of the United
of infection may also include anemia and icterus.
States.
Icterus, also known as jaundice, is a condition where

Care should be taken when handling aborted
the skin and white of the eyes appear yellow due to an
fetuses or placentas, as all the pathogens that cause
accumulation of bilirubin in the blood caused by the
abortion in sheep and goats can be transmitted to
breakdown of red blood cells. It can be a symptom of
humans.
anemia or liver disease. A diagnosis of Leptospirosis

Campylobacter infections result in late pregnancy
can be made conclusively by testing the dam’s urine,
abortions or stillbirths. They are seen much more
the aborted fetus, or the placenta.
commonly as a cause of abortion in ewes than in

Q fever is a bacterial infection that can cause
does. If the abortions are due to an infection by
abortion, especially in goats, but also in sheep. It is
Campylobacter bacteria, infected animals are often
caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii, which are
responsive to either tetracycline or sulfa drugs to
shed in milk, urine, feces, placental tissue and amniotic
prevent further abortions. A vaccine is available to
fluid, as well as spread through the air. Pasteurization
prevent Campylobacter infections.
is effective in killing the bacteria in milk. Clinical

Chlamydia infections cause abortions during the
signs in ruminants include anorexia, abortion, and
last 2 to 3 weeks of gestation, resulting in stillbirths
lesions. The disease is usually diagnosed by bacteria
and weak offspring. Ewes and does infected by
from an infected placenta, which will be covered with
this bacterium rarely abort more than once, but can
a gray-brown secretion. Outbreaks can be managed by
continue to shed the bacteria from their reproductive
administration of oral tetracycline, separating pregnant
tract, infecting other herd members. It is likely the
animals inside from the rest of the herd, and burning
infectious agent is Chlamydia bacteria if the abortions
or burying reproductive waste. The disease can be
occur in ewe lambs or young ewes. Abortions due to
spread to humans, especially farmers, veterinarians,
Chlamydia bacteria can be stemmed by treating ewes
and researchers who assist in the birthing process, who
with tetracycline given in the feed or by injections.
often exhibit flu-like clinical signs.
There is also a vaccine for Chlamydia.
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Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats — AS-595-W

Even if a specific infectious agent is suspected
competes for thiamine receptors in the rumen and
as the cause of abortion in a herd or flock, it is still
binds some of the receptors in the place of thiamine.
necessary to submit an aborted fetus and placenta
As a result, less thiamine is absorbed by the body, even
to a diagnostic lab for confirmation. It is important
though thiamine production in the rumen is sufficient.
to include the part of the placenta where lesions are
This decreased thiamine absorption results in neuronal
present as this is critical to identification. Producers
degeneration and death of brain cells. Traditional diets
can work with veterinarians when packaging and
do not contain high levels of sulfur.
shipping the fetus and placenta. To prevent the spread

Polio seems to be endemic to certain farms,
of infectious agents while waiting for results from the
probably due to types of feedstuffs or water available.
diagnostic lab, aborting ewes or does must be isolated
Some water wells contain high levels of sulfur in the
from the rest of the herd, and aborted fetuses or
water, and some feedstuffs are known to contain high
placentas should be removed from the pen.
levels of sulfur. Fish products and by-products from

Specific management practices can help to reduce
corn distillation for ethanol (distillers’ grains) have
the incidence of infectious abortions in the herd or
high levels of sulfur. If polio is a problem on specific
flock. Any new additions to the flock or herd should
farms or if feed ingredients with high sulfur content
be quarantined or, if they are pregnant ewes or does,
are fed, then thiamine should be routinely added to
penned separately until they give birth. Campylobacter
grain mixes fed to sheep and goats.
and Chlamydia bacteria are often spread to a non-

A diagnosis of polioencephalomacia can be made
infected herd or flock when a purchased animal is
when clinical signs such as blindness are observed
introduced from another farm. Feeding high doses
in animals with normal temperatures, or lesions are
of tetracycline prior to lambing or kidding has been
found during necropsy. To treat the condition, thiamine
effective in reducing Chlamydia and Campylobacter
hydrochloride can be administered twice daily for
abortions. Ewes or does should not be fed on the
several days. Affected animals should be isolated to
ground, as Campylobacter and Chlamydia are
provide easy access to feed and water. Intravenous
transmitted by ingestion of materials in contact with
(IV) fluids, electrolytes, and nutrients can be given
infected feces or fetal and placental fluids. Vaccination
using a stomach tube if necessary. Complete recovery
for Campylobacter and Chlamydia is important for
depends on the extent of damage done to the brain.
flock or herd health as well. There is, however, no
vaccine for toxoplasmosis available in the United
Mastitis
States.
Mastitis refers to an inflammation of the mammary
glands due to a bacterial infection. Udder damage,
Polioencephalomacia
often caused by mastitis, is one of the leading causes
Polioencephalomacia is a condition found usually
of culling in sheep and goat operations. The risk
in feedlot lambs between 5 and 8 months of age, but
of developing mastitis increases with poor sanitary
can affect sheep of all breeds, sex, and ages. Losses
conditions, systemic infection, or trauma inflicted by
are most often sustained in animals on a high plane of
offspring. Mastitis can occur as an acute or chronic
nutrition.
condition, and may be localized to a single gland or

There are two levels of this disease, subacute
both.
and acute. In the subacute form, animals show signs

Mastitis can be diagnosed through physical
of incoordination, weakness, tremors, blindness,
examination of the udder of the animal or by looking
and depression. In the acute form, lambs are found
at a sample of milk from an affected gland on a strip
dead or comatose, experiencing involuntary muscle
cup against a black background. Acutely mastitic
contractions or seizures. Body temperature is not
mammary glands are warm, swollen, and painful, and
affected. At necropsy, lesions in the central nervous
may produce milk that is abnormal in consistency or
system and necrosis of the cerebral cortex of the brain
color. If mastitis becomes septic, meaning that bacteria
are found.
have entered the bloodstream, the condition may be

Polioencephalomacia is thought to be caused
accompanied by signs of fever, anorexia, depression,
by thiamine deficiency as a result of diets or water
and lethargy. In chronic mastitis, the main symptom
containing toxic levels of sulfur. A thiamine-like
observed is offspring that are failing to thrive, as
substance is produced in the rumen during digestion
affected dams are reluctant to let them nurse.
of high-sulfur diets. This thiamine-like substance
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Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats — AS-595-W

Mastitis can be treated with both intramammary
Pregnancy Toxemia
and systemic antibiotics treatment. If mastitis is a
Pregnancy toxemia (ketosis) affects ewes or does
chronic problem in an operation, then the causative
during late gestation. It occurs more commonly in
agent should be cultured, and antibiotic choice
sheep than goats. It occurs most commonly in either
based upon those results. It is helpful to work with
fat or thin animals that carry two or more feti. The
a veterinarian to develop a mastitis control strategy,
condition develops when the ewe or doe cannot
as individual cases, even if treated properly, result in
ingest enough nutrients to meet both the glucose
udder damage.
requirements of the growing fetus and her own
body metabolism. During early gestation, the dam’s
White Muscle Disease
increased appetite is enough to encourage her to
White muscle disease is a degenerative muscle disease
compensate for the increased nutrient needs. By late
found in sheep and goats. It is caused by a deficiency
gestation however, the growing feti are taking up
of selenium and/or vitamin E. Selenium deficiency
more space in the dam’s abdomen, and she is often
is associated with areas where the soil is deficient in
physically incapable of eating enough to meet her
selenium, while a vitamin E deficiency reflects poor
needs unless more nutrient-dense feeds are provided.
forage quality. White muscle disease is most often seen

If adequate energy is not available to the gestating
in newborns and fast-growing animals.
ewe or doe, she can metabolize body fat to meet her

White muscle disease may affect skeletal muscles,
own nutrient requirements. When fatty acids are
heart muscle, or both. When the skeletal muscles are
metabolized at high rates, ketone bodies are produced,
affected, the animal will arch its back with a hunched
which can be dangerous in high levels. The condition
appearance, and have a stiff gait. When the heart
where excess ketones are present in the bloodstream,
muscle becomes affected, the animal may present with
known as ketosis, results in depression and anorexia
difficulty breathing; fever; and frothy, blood-stained
until the ewe or doe becomes too weak to stand.
nasal discharge.

Producers can take steps to prevent pregnancy

Other clinical signs associated with selenium and
toxemia by properly managing the weight of ewes
vitamin E deficiency that may be seen along with
or does throughout the year, and especially prior to
white muscle disease include reproductive losses such
breeding and during gestation. Ewes and does should
as lower conception rates, fetal re-absorption, dystocia,
be body-condition scored at breeding, as overweight
retained placenta, reduced milk production, reduced
and excessively thin ewes or does are at a higher risk
semen quality, and reduced immune response.
for ketosis. They can also be ultrasounded during

White muscle disease can be treated with an
pregnancy to determine fetal number, and animals
injection of both vitamin E and selenium since the
gestating multiples can be fed and managed differently
condition may be caused by a deficiency in one or
than those with singles. If possible, ewes or does
both. Affected animals will usually respond to a
should then be divided into two pens and managed
single treatment within 24 hours, and a second dose
differently during gestation to minimize their risk of
of vitamin E (though not selenium) may be given if
toxemia. While it is acceptable for overweight ewes or
individuals are unresponsive. Treatment should not
does to lose weight during the first two trimesters, they
exceed two doses on a short-term basis.
should be gaining weight by the third trimester.

Selenium and vitamin E deficiencies occur

Feeding grains with increased energy density
when animals are fed feedstuffs low in one or
during the third trimester, or about six weeks prior to
both compounds. Indiana and Kentucky, and most
lambing or kidding, will help to prevent pregnancy
surrounding states, are known to have selenium-
toxemia. Providing higher quality hay is also a good
deficient soils. The disease can be prevented through
idea for gestating ewes or does. Shearing ewes also
feed and mineral supplementation. Injections of
makes it easier to monitor body condition and causes
selenium and vitamin E can also be given, but a
increased feed intake.
producer should get advice on the use of these
injections from a veterinarian.
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