Creating a Personal Counseling Theory

Article 31
Creating a Personal Counseling Theory
Jerry A. Mobley and George M. Gazda
To explore a structure for creating a personal
Seven different textbooks on counseling theories
counseling theory, this counselor training model begins
from five different publishers (Capuzzi & Gross, 2003;
with the distillation of counselor theories into 13
Corey, 2000; Corsini & Wedding, 2000; Day, 2004;
dominant approaches to counseling, integrates 7 of
Gazda, Ginter, & Horne, 2001; Kottler, 2001; Sharf,
those theories around existentialism, and establishes a
2004) were selected, and the theories they included were
sequence of stages for counselor development by
analyzed. The Gazda et al. (2001) text is included
applying Bloom’s (1964) taxonomy and feedback from
because of its difference in organization. Even though
counselor trainers of their perceptions of 13 dominant
it is a group counseling theories textbook, it combined
theories. The goal of these processes is to improve how
several theories, e.g., existential, person-centered, and
we help people by integrating key theories and strategies
Gestalt therapies are addressed together as are several
into a more unified model.
cognitive behavioral approaches. (See Table 1.)
Table 1. A Listing of Counseling Theories Included in Several Textbooks (by senior author, publisher, year, and edition).
TE XT BOOK S
SCHOO LS O F
SIG NIFIC AN T
C ap uz zi
C ore y
C ors in i
G az da
K ottl e
D ay
S h arf
(19 99)
(20 00)
(20 00)
(20 01)
(20 02)
(20 04)
(20 04)
THE RA PY
PA RTI CIPA NTS
Psy choanalytic
Sigm und Fr eu d
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt ers
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
in cl u des
Ther apy
Jun g
w it h
Ind ivid ual
A lfred A dler, R udolph
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
----
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c og’ tiv e
P syc ho logy
Driekurs
th era pi es
A naly tic T he ra py
Ca rl J ung
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
----
w it h
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
Fre ud
Exist ent ial
V iktor Fr an kl,
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
two
c ha pt ers
in cl u des
c ha pt er
w it h
Ther apy
Abraham M aslow,
c ha pt ers
Fre ud
w it h
p ers on-
Ro llo M a y, I rwin
c ha pt er
p ers on-
c en ter ed
w it h
Ya lom
c en ter ed
& G est’t
R o ger s
&
G esta lt
Per son -C ent ere d
Carl Roge rs
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
two
w it h
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt ers
e xi st’ti al
w it h
Ther apy
w it h
& G est’t
e xi st’l
e xi st’l &
G esta lt
G es ta lt Th er a py
Fre drick P erls, Sim ick
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
two
w it h
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt ers
e xi st’l &
w it h
p -ce nt ’d
e xi st’l &
p ers on-
c en ter ed
R ea lity (Ch oic e)
W illiam Glass er,
c ha pt er
----
c ha pt er
----
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
w it h
Ther apy
W ubbolding
c og’ tiv e
R ational-Em otive
A lbert El lis
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
two
c ha pt ers
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt ers
w it h
w it h CT
Be ha vioral
w it h
Ther apy
c og’ tiv e
b eh av’ al
Be havior al
J.B . W atso n, B. F.
c ha pt er
c ha pt e r
c ha pt er
two
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt er ;
Ther apy
w it h ou t
Skinne r, Albe rt
— e xt ra
c ha pt ers
L a zur us
o n
w it h
L a zaru s
a lso i n
Ba ndura, A rnold
L a zaru s
REBT
&
in te g’ te d
Laza rus, Dona ld
c og nit i ve
Me iche nba um
C ognitive Ther ap y
A aron Bec k, Ju dith
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
c ha pt er
----
w it h
c ha pt er
c ha pt er ;
Bec k
A dl er,
w it h
a lso
Ell is ,
Ell is
some
L a zaru s
M e ic h’n
Note. Listed are Capuzzi and Gross (Prentice Hall, 2003, 3rd); Corey (Brooks/Cole, 2000, 5th); Corsini and Wedding (Peacock,
2000, 5th) Day (2004, Houghton Mifflin), Gazda, Ginter, and Horne (Allyn & Bacon, 2001); Kottle (Allyn & Bacon, 2001); and
Sharf (2004, Wadsworth).
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While Kottler (2001) also includes existential and
phenomenology and developing a quality relationship
Gestalt therapies together, the other textbooks reserve
with the client. Techniques are in the service of treating
the combining of theories to cognitive and behavioral
people and not just materialistically treating problems.
approaches.
People can make new choices and move toward a future
Along with these hints that some of these theories
that is different from their past. These four cognitive
might go together, a consensus seems to emerge from
behavioral therapies in combination with existential,
these textbooks on the 13 dominant counseling theories
Gestalt, and person-centered therapies form a
at the turn of the millennium. In alphabetical order by
substantial range of concepts, potential issues
the senior developer, these are (1) Albert Adler’s
addressed, interventions, and counselor skills around
individual psychology, (2) Albert Bandura and John
the philosophy of existentialism.
Krumboltz’s social learning theory, (3) Aaron and Judith
While we agree that having more than one theory
Beck’s cognitive therapy, (4) Albert Ellis’ rational
will make the counselor more effective with more
emotive behavioral therapy (REBT), (5) Viktor Frankl/
clients, we further believe that the theories can assist
Rollo May/Irwin Yalom’s existential therapy, (6)
the helping process and prefer integrating them beyond
Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic therapy, (7) William
the technique level. A division among the theories
Glasser’s reality (choice) therapy, (8) Carl Jung’s
between those approaches that are existential and those
analytic therapy, (9) Arnold Lazarus’s multimodal
that are not opens the door to their being combined,
therapy, (10) Donald Miechenbaum’s cognitive-
not just on a technique level but also at a theoretical
behavioral therapy, (11) Fritz Perl’s Gestalt therapy, (12)
level.
Carl Roger’s person-centered therapy, and (13) B. F.
Pedagogy for training counselors and creating a
Skinner’s behavioral therapy.
personal counseling theory could also emerge based
In Mobley (2005), the case is made that several
upon Bloom’s (1964) taxonomy and a survey of
theories could be combined, not just on a technique
counselor trainers’ perceptions of the 13 major theories.
level but also on a theoretical level. These theories
Once the theories are separated into two groups, the
emphasize the nonmaterial nature of humans including
more existentially sensitive and less existentially
the importance of relationships, the power of choices,
oriented, an improved sequence for training counselors
the need for purpose in life, and the potential for
in the theories could begin with concrete activities that
transcendence and improvement. Three of the 13
are not complex, relatively speaking, and proceed to
approaches clearly make similar existential or
the ones that are more abstract and more complex.
humanistic assumptions: existential therapy, Gestalt
Beginning counselor training or a counselor education
therapy, and person-centered therapy. Perls said that
textbook with Freud and Jung is exactly backwards from
he was providing the techniques for doing existential
what is suggested by Bloom’s system. In the process
therapy. The underlying assumptions between
that is suggested here, Freud and Jung would be delayed
existential and Gestalt therapies are the same. Rogers
in their presentation until the more existential and less
also makes comparable nonmaterialistic assertions in
abstract techniques have been mastered. The less
his focus on the client.
complex theories and techniques are presented first.
While applying different interventions, three other
Presenting seven existentially sensitive theories
approaches also seem to support existential qualities in
beginning with the more concrete and less complex
the counseling process: valuing the counselor-client
suggests the following order:
relationship, improving clients’ ability to define critical
incidents and make strategic choices, and creating a
Stage I—Connecting With Clients utilizing
life that is more satisfying and productive. Adler’s
Rogerian person-centered therapy. Post-
individual psychology, Glasser’s new reality therapy
Rogerian empathy and immediacy has
(based on choice theory), and Ellis’ rational emotive
been explained and researched by
behavioral therapy empower people to choose to be
Carkhuff and Gazda (with a variety of
more responsible and even feel better by thinking and
colleagues). Gordon has provided much
behaving differently. The issue is more about the future
of the language to discuss these topics:
and what people want, and their goals (more existential
active listening, I-messages and their
in orientation), than their past experiences (less
related sentences (see Mobley, 2005).
existential). Another perspective could be associated
with these two problem-solving but existential
Stage II—Problem Solving With Cognitive
therapies: Krumboltz’s version of behaviorism, now
Behavioral Techniques. Specific stages in
called social learning theory.
the therapeutic process and techniques are
Krumboltz included an existential description
detailed by each of four theories:
about the value of understanding the client’s
Krumboltz can identify a problem and
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create a behavioral plan in four steps;
can be extended, teaching from what is
Glasser can isolate what a client wants and
known to related concepts that are
generate a plan utilizing “radio station”
unknown.
W-D-E-P; Ellis disputes (D) faulty beliefs
(B) to change clients’ feelings (F) in a
Stage V—Counseling With More Than One
straightforward A-B-C-D-E-F process;
Person at a Time. The first three stages
and Adler is more complex and abstract
can be performed with small groups and
while identifying people’s goals and
families. Each of these seven theories has
intervening with the C-A-R-E process.
been described with applications to both
These theories are ordered from the more
environments. While additional concepts
concrete to the more complex with
like leadership styles and family systems
behaviorism being the least abstract and
are important in working with multiple
Adler being the most abstract. Ellis is
people at the same time, counselors can
more complex than Krumboltz or Glasser
apply their integrated theories to these
because he considered client cognitions
applications.
more often than he did overt behavior. All
of these approaches move clients toward
personal responsibility primarily by
Having integrated over half of the 13 dominant
changing thoughts and behaviors.
theories around existentialism, Bloom’s (1964)
taxonomy can be utilized to create a developmental
Stage III—Resolving an Underlying Dichotomy.
sequence of theories from the most simple and concrete
If the client wants to achieve opposite
to the most complex and abstract.
goals (e.g., to leave the abuser but
To begin to establish the validity of this
maintain the family intact), Stage II will
perspective, over 1,000 counselor educators were e-
not be successful. The client must
mailed a survey from July 1 to December 31, 2004.
integrate the opposing perspectives into a
Participants were asked their perception of similarity
single one that can be problem solved. The
and differences among the 13 dominant theories. The
techniques from Gestalt therapy might be
resulting matrices of their ratings were analyzed with
specific, but the issues they address, like
the multidimensional scaling (MDS). The results from
energy, unfinished business, and
the very meager number of respondents (N = 40)
dichotomies, are not concrete. Paradoxing
confirm the emerging structure for creating a counseling
clients’ divided issues are counterintuitive
theory that has been discussed above. During the April
and abstract. Integration into a single
9, 2005, presentation at the American Counseling
resolved goal allows the counseling to
Association meeting, the dimensions of the two-factor
return to Stage II and problem solving to
solution were interactively named by over 200
again be applied.
participants (Mobley & Gazda, 2005).
While the number of respondents was small, every
Stage IV—“Therapizing” Underlying Issues.
one of the 13 theories was represented (and narrative
Having established how to connect with
or family therapy was listed as “other”), and the results
clients, problem solve client issues, and
substantiate this personal theory model (See Figure 1).
resolve dichotomies, the more abstract and
Developing a personal counseling theory appears to
complex therapeutic processes can now
begin in the lower right-hand quadrant with existential
be taught. Freud and Jung can explore the
and relationship issues, move counterclockwise to the
less obvious and often important issues
lower left-hand concrete problem-solving theories,
that impact the results of counseling. More
continue into the upper left-hand quadrant with the more
complicated Adlerian processes could be
complex cognitive behavioral strategies, and conclude
added. By exploring Beck’s cognitive
in the right-hand quadrant with Freud and Jung. Lazarus
therapy and Meichenbaum’s cognitive
is at the top of complexity because he addressed
behavioral therapy, more complex
emotions, thoughts, images, behaviors, and chemical
cognitive behavioral techniques can be
condition of the person. Adler is probably in this upper-
applied to the existential core (particularly
right block because of his exploration into motivations
Stage II). Lazarus’ technical work might
for behavior, an abstraction beyond Glasser’s “What
also be applied. The existential core
do you want?” (a relative concrete idea in the lower
counseling processes that are sensitive to
left quadrant).
the relationship with clients (Stages I–III)
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Figure 1. Diagram of Counseling Theories
.
. 1.5 < Lazarus
.
.








> Jung
.
.







> Freud
. 1.0

>
.

Beck
.
Miechenbaum
.
>
.







> Adler
. 0.5
> Skinner
.
.
.
.
First Order
Second Order
. 0.0
. > Ellis
.
.
. -0.5

Glasser
.


>
.
>
.
Bandura & Krumboltz
.








> Perls
. -1.0
.







> Rogers
.
.








>
.







Frankl, May &

Yalom
.
. -1.5
Existential
.
.
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
. f f f f f f
f
f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f

-1.5
-1.0
- 0.5
0.0 0.5
1.0
1.5
Note. A listing of the perceptions of 13 counseling theories by counselor educators in two dimensional space. The
x-axis seems to group the theories in terms of whether they solve the immediate problem, “first order” counseling,
or explore underlying issues, “second order” counseling. The y-axis divides the theories based upon their relationship
to existential issues. After understanding existential issues, counselors could move from the concrete and less
complex lower right quadrant to the more complex but still existential lower left quadrant, to the cognitive-
behaviorally familiar but less existential upper left quadrant, and conclude with the most abstract and complex
theories in the upper right quadrant.
Analyzing the perceptions of counselor educators
statement to say to clients and potential employers and
provides evidence that supports a developmental model
should therefore omit jargon and theories in favor of
for how a counselor can develop his or her
descriptions and potential outcomes. The core of the
understanding and capacity to evolve a personal theory
personal counseling theory is expressed in section II.
of counseling.
After individually affirming existentialism and basic
In a practical application of the preceding
person-centered applications, counselors can choose
information, a structure can be suggested that guides
one of the three problem-solving approaches and
counselors in developing their approach to helping. The
become expert at applying that process. Knowing more
opening statement (section I) is more of a marketing
than one process is desirable, but knowing one cognitive
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behavioral approach is essential. Parts of Adlerian
establishment and implementation of plans requiring
psychology could be applied at this point because of
an expressive therapy like Gestalt therapy, or even
its sympathy with existentialism. (Adler was an
Freudian psychoanalysis or Jungian analytic work.
existentialist before there was existentialism.)
Applying the evolving theory to more than one person
As was explained earlier, Gestalt therapy (Stage
at a time in group or family counseling increases the
III) provides a means for beginning to explore
complexity of the personal counseling theory and
complicated underlying issues that might limit or
incorporates leadership and systemic ideas that are more
prevent Stage II problem solving. A Gestalt perspective
abstract. The resulting document and statement of
can serve as a cognitive bridge to learn both Freudian
theory can be a powerful inclusion in counselors’
and Jungian concepts. Since Perls was doing
portfolios.
psychoanalysis in the present (rather than delving into
the past), many of the concepts are similar to Freud’s
References
(e.g., energy, defense mechanisms, and catharsis—
Freud called it abreaction). Perls also indicated the
Bloom, B., Mesia, B., & Krathwohl, D. (1964).
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the next section (III) invites them to write a dialogue
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The core theory can be applied to group (section
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The profession and each of the approaches offer
direction for additional training and maintaining
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design an action plan that might guide their continued
development into the areas that they consider important.
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Obtaining professional memberships, continuing to
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read books and journals, attending professional
Mellen Press.
conferences and workshops, and utilizing supervision
are vital aspects of all counselor maturity.
Mobley, J., & Gazda, G. (2005). Your personal
All counselors have a personal theory of
counseling theory: Integrating the similarities and
counseling. Some theories are better than others
differences among 13 counseling theories. Education
because they are more developed: they serve more
session presented at the annual meeting of the
clients and symptoms than others. The approach
American Counseling Association in Atlanta, GA.
suggested here could establish a process that could be
utilized to assist counselors in creating their personal
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counseling theory. The journey begins with
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existentialism to affirm the human condition, connects
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are not immediately obvious can interfere with the
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