Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2002
Cross-Cultural Communication, Media and Learning Processes in
Asynchronous Learning Networks


Ting-Ting Chang
Xiaoying Wang
John Lim
School of Computing
School of Computing
School of Computing
National University of Singapore
National University of Singapore
National University of Singapore
changtt@comp.nus.edu.sg
wangxia1@comp.nus.edu.sg
jlim@comp.nus.edu.sg




Abstract
think time, and retain contribution of ideas so that

instructors and learners can stop to think and understand
without missing intervening conversation. The
Cross-cultural interactions across educational implementation of an ALN involves a group of
boundaries have been enhanced in asynchronous
participants (instructors, learners, and technical experts)
learning networks. The issue of cross-cultural
supported by a distributed computer system. The
communication is fundamental in asynchronous
distributed systems include information servers, such as
learning research since the learners involved have
the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Hypertext Transfer
significant communication norms that are distinctly
Protocol (HTTP) [3], synchronous chat systems, and
different across cultures. The influence wielded by the
virtual networks that permit multicast transmission of
cultural values of individual and group learners can
video and audio [41]. The different tools used for the
impact upon the learning process. Concurrently, the
communication between learners can also be viewed as
degree of social presence supported by the media used
a technology infrastructure supporting an educational
in asynchronous learning networks can also affect
activity. This infrastructure studied in previous research
learning. This paper discusses the relationship between
includes email, newsgroups, and Group Support
cultural traits and media social presence with the focus
Systems (GSS) [27]. Currently, ALNs also refer to the
on asynchronous learning networks. A set of
courses that use the Internet as the means of accessing
propositions delineating cross-cultural and media
learning materials. Remote learning resources, as well
impact on learning processes is highlighted with respect
as communication with the instructors and other
learners without having to be online at the same time,
to the cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism.
can be attained more easily. Learners across different

cultures, not bounded by geographical boundaries, can
1. Introduction
contribute simultaneously with a smooth flow of

communication during learning. The main feature of
An asynchronous learning network (ALN) enables
ALNs is that they allow the instructors and learners, as
a group of people to use computer-mediated
a part of an educational community, to cooperate
communication networks to learn together, independent
asynchronously while focusing on a common learning
of time, place, and individuals’ pace. The technological
task.
systems are designed to support anytime and anywhere
The evolvement of ALNs represents a new
interaction among learners, and between learners and
pedagogical paradigm that highlights coordination and
instructors [4], henceforth encouraging more cross-
collaboration enabled by the proliferation of
cultural communication across educational institutions
technological tools. Previous research studies on the
in different geographical locations. Concomitantly, the
benefits and opportunities offered by ALNs have also
high degree of socio-emotional content observed in
shown positive results on learning outcomes (for e.g.,
computer-mediated communication reflects the inherent
[1, 23, 27, 35, 36, 37]). Cultural traits, communication
communication and cultural characteristics of the
characteristics, and media effects are indispensable
learners [28].
when considering fundamental group processes in
Through the use of a suite of technological tools,
ALNs. This study delineates some propositions on the
learners in ALNs make a joint cognitive effort towards
relationships between culture and media on learning
a goal, either completing an assignment or performing
processes.
well in examinations. These tools theoretically extend
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Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2002
2. Theoretical Background
medium. Therefore, new theories and models of

learning have to be generated in view of cross-cultural
communication. So far, only a few studies have
There are three major sources of theory for ALNs:
compared groups from the same cultural background
educational research (pedagogical theories), with groups from varied cultural backgrounds using
communications research (media effects theories), and
different communication media [2].
social psychology (group interaction theories) [15].
Among the studies conducted on learning, cultural
Firstly, pedagogical theories include a spectrum of
difference between learners is one of the possible
approaches from objectivism to constructivism. The
explanations for inconsistent outcomes [25]. Although
objectivists believe that knowledge is transferred
the concept of culture is multidimensional,
objectively from the instructor to the learner, and skills
individualism-collectivism has been used as a major
such as remembering and reciting information can only
dimension to distinguish learning styles. There is also
be learned from repeated individual practice. On the
an increasing interest in the relationship between the
other hand, the constructivists believe that knowledge is
media and the socio-cultural construction of knowledge.
constructed by each learner via discovery, exploration
Being an important element of interpersonal
and experience. E-learning, bearing similarities with e-
communication, social presence is a significant factor in
commerce, is becoming “customer-oriented” with the
improving instructional effectiveness, especially in
shift from instructor-centered to learner-centered
student learning [12]. Social presence refers to the
pedagogy. With the advent of web-based technologies,
degree of salience of the other learner in the interaction,
more
“knowledge-building” communities across
and the consequent salience and immediacy of the
different cultures can be formed for cooperative and
interpersonal relationships [29]. ALNs may impact
collaborative learning. Secondly, media effects theories,
learning processes because of the cultural backgrounds
such as the media richness theory, contribute to the
and availability of communication channels to convey
study of ALN. According to this theory, media
information. This raises two main research questions
characteristics vary by their ability to support task
that the paper aims to address: (1) What type of cross-
uncertainty and equivocality. In addition, performance
cultural communication is the most effective for
can be improved when task requirements are matched to
learning in asynchronous learning networks? (2) How
the medium's ability to convey information [6]. While
does the degree of social presence affect the learning
communication effectiveness does not always guarantee
process during cross-cultural communication? We
better performance results [7], media characteristics that
propose several impacts of cross-cultural
can better correspond to information content and
communication in this paper, and these impacts are
context needs may result in an improved outcome [31].
contingent upon the degree of social presence supported
Thirdly, some group interaction theories can be applied
by the media. The next section reviews the literature on
to the online class to analyze group learning. According
cultural dimensions, social presence and learning
to the time, interaction, and performance theory [24],
processes. Section 4 describes the propositions
groups are complex social systems that engage in
developed as part of an ongoing study to understand the
multiple interdependent projects. Groups of learners,
effects of cross-cultural education and media. Section 5
regardless of their cultural backgrounds, are required to
discusses the importance and implications of
perform inter-related learning tasks to meet educational
understanding cross-cultural communication and media
goals through collaboration. One objective of using
effects on the learning processes.
ALNs is to achieve a collective intelligence during the
learning process. A suitable collaborative system allows

learners to accumulate knowledge, and associate
3. Literature Review
information to other fields. Although face-to-face is a

rich learning medium, technological systems can
This section provides an overview of the
potentially help to perform the pedagogical activities,
conceptual background for the cultural and media
and enable individual learners to work independently
attributes used in our study. Various dimensions of
and asynchronously in groups. Our focus in this study is
national culture are discussed in section 3.1, with an
on group learning processes.
emphasis on the individualism-collectivism dimension.
One point to note is that group process models in
Social presence is highlighted in section 3.2 as a salient
the literature are derived from studying traditional face-
factor affecting pedagogical processes. Research on the
to-face learning groups. Applying traditional models to
learning processes is introduced in section 3.3.
study asynchronous groups might violate the premises

in the foundation of these models. In an asynchronous
learning group, individual decision-making has to be
integrated explicitly with group problem solving to
understand the learning processes enabled in each
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Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2002
3.1. Culture and Learning
power distance dimension refers to the level of

acceptance that power is distributed unequally within
institutions. People in low power distance cultures
The culture of a country can be viewed as a set of
might be less comfortable with a large status differential
shared values and beliefs derived from education,
than those in high power distance cultures [17]. They
family relations, or media. Culture can also be seen as
tend to believe in decentralization of learning by
the common way of looking at things shared by people
empowering their learners, as opposed to high power
who inhabit the same social environment. Past
distance cultures who tend to believe in centralization
experience might affect the interpretation of
of learning by transferring knowledge from the
communication between instructors and learners. Four
instructor to the learner. In high power distance cultures
cultural dimensions common in the literature include
where there is a high acceptance of inequality a more
individualism-collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, autocratic instead of a democratic learning style might
power distance, and masculinity-femininity [17].
be preferred. The masculinity-femininity dimension
The individualism-collectivism dimension refers to
refers to the expected gender roles in a culture.
the tendency to focus on the needs of self as opposed to
Masculinity indicates the masculine values of
community and society. It is the extent to which a
assertiveness and materialism, while femininity
society believes people should take care of themselves
indicates the prevailing feminine values of
and remain independent from groups. Cultures
supportiveness, nurturing instincts and quality of life.
characterized by high individualism promote individual
The masculine cultures tend to have distinctly defined
identity, and believe learners should take care of
gender roles in the society. Competitive learning
themselves [17]. Learners tend to have opinions
behavior is usually emphasized, while disputes during
independent of the groups to which they belong. The
the learning process are often resolved by withdrawal.
school management is likely to play the role of
On the other hand, the feminine cultures tend to be
coordinating individual efforts to achieve collective
more ambiguous in the expectations of each gender as
goals. Countries where individualism is promoted
distinctions in the gender role overlap. Socially
include US, Australia and UK [17]. Conversely,
sensitive behavior of learning is usually emphasized,
collectivistic cultures are more group oriented, and
while disputes during the learning process are often
promote group identity. People are trained to adhere to
resolved by compromise and negotiation.
the group. Learners’ opinions tend to be consistent with
These dimensions of national culture reflect the set
their peers. The instructors are likely to place a high
of shared values and beliefs that affect the learning
priority on the maintenance of harmonious group
behavior of each country and society. They are relevant
learning relationships. Countries with a high group
variables to be investigated as they have fundamental
orientation include most of the Asian countries such as
influence on one's learning success. However, some of
Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong [17]. The essential
these dimensions may have more pronounced
distinction between individualism and collectivism is
magnitude of effects on learning groups. Despite the
the level of independence [19]. This dimension is
limited studies in the research of cultural variables [2],
associated with relational behavior by determining the
the individualism-collectivism dimension is one of the
relevance of others. For collectivistic cultures, the
more conceptually and empirically developed. This
personal relationship prevails over the task, as
dimension is also found to have the strongest variation
contrasted with individualistic cultures. Learners in
across cultures [17]. Consequently, the individualism-
individualistic cultures may perceive pedagogy
collectivism dimension has been identified as the major
differently from their collectivistic counterparts, and
dimension of cultural variation for our preliminary
tend to adopt different strategies to learning. Thus, we
investigation of cross-cultural communication.
suggest that the predisposition toward learning is
systematically influenced by the individualistic or

collectivistic values that dominate in a learner’s culture.
3.2. Social Presence
The dimension of uncertainty avoidance refers to

the extent of tolerance that people feel towards
Recent studies have examined the importance of
uncertainty and ambiguity [17]. Low uncertainty
social factors that affect communication and learning
avoidance cultures tend to explore ambiguous situations
[39]. The social presence theory [29] has been applied
and may feel more comfortable with the unknown.
to computer-mediated communication in account of the
Learners are likely to depend on their own views to
cues pertaining to interpersonal communication. In the
determine what they should do, but are open to change.
context of a learning environment, the theory centers on
Such cultures have the potential to stimulate creativity
social relations of individual learners during
and innovation among learners as they maintain a
collaboration. Communication media differ in their
greater level of tolerance towards unorthodox ideas. The
degree of social presence, which is one factor that has
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Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2002
molded interaction. While no significant differences for
the low social presence. The paucity of social context
communication medium were observed for culturally
cues makes it difficult to embellish meaning during the
homogeneous GSS groups [16], media effects have
learning process. The absence of nonverbal cues may
been found in various studies [8, 10, 34, 37]. No
encourage more self-focused or hostile communication,
medium is richest on all media characteristics. The
and depersonalization problems may arise. Information
relationships between communication processes and
relating to social and personal characteristics of
media capabilities can vary between established and
learners, such as gender and physical appearance, might
newly formed groups, and change over time [7]. The
be more substantially suppressed within some
social presence theory predicts linear educational
asynchronous networks. Therefore, the degree of social
benefits from the use of technologies transmitting more
presence has a certain level of influence on the
verbal and nonverbal cues. The degree of social
pedagogical processes. While studies of learning tend to
presence refers to the feeling that other learners are
indicate that social presence is highly correlated with
jointly involved in the communicative interaction, and
favorable learning outcomes, interaction patterns should
is likely a communicator’s perception of a medium’s
be structured to overcome the potential lack of social
capabilities than a medium’s attribute [38]. Studies have
presence of the medium.
investigated that social presence is a strong predictor of

learning satisfaction [12]. The learning process, a
3.3. ALN Learning Processes
function of media perceptions of partially distributed
groups, can be improved in ALNs.

Two social psychology concepts are related to
The social interdependence theory [20] provides a
social presence: intimacy and immediacy [42]. Intimacy
conceptual framework for the pedagogical processes in
is a measure of social presence of media, being a
a cooperative environment. The underlying premise for
function of proximity and eye contact [29]. Close
this theory is that the type of interdependence in a
proximity and maintained eye contact convey greater
learning situation determines how individuals interact
intimacy during communication. Asynchronous with one another, which in turn affect the group
networks are less intimate, and missing nonverbal cues
processes in a community. The educational outcomes
have to be deliberately compensated by explicit
identified in the social interdependence theory include
verbalization of expected norms during learning. In the
psychological health, interpersonal relationships, and
literature of communication, lean media are better
effort to achieve [20], which correspond to the three
suited for idea-generation and brainstorming tasks [10],
processes hypothesized by Aviv [3] – social, response,
although the learning process is much more complicated
and reasoning respectively. The social process models
than the generation of ideas. Immediacy of the media is
the creation and maintenance of group cohesiveness.
another dimension of social presence. The level of
The response process models the responsiveness,
immediacy is a measure of the social or psychological
cooperation, and content-relevant communication
distance a communicator puts between himself/herself
between the learner and the group. The reasoning
and the recipient of the communication. Social
process models the cognitive skills and knowledge to
immediacy is conveyed through speech and associated
carry out tasks and resolve problems. Past findings
cues (verbal and nonverbal) [29]. Social presence may
provide evidence that ALNs improve learning from
decrease when nonverbal gestures (such as facial
different aspects such as the social dimension [41],
expressions or voice tones) are missing as informational
interactivity or responsiveness [13], critical-thinking or
cues for defining the learning situation. However, this
reasoning, and metacognitive processes [14]. The social
social distance can sometimes be extended by means of
interdependence theory also suggests that cooperation
email, videoconferencing and other web technologies.
leads to greater responsiveness and peer support, and
Mediated communication tends to be less rich in
encourages the use of higher level reasoning strategies.
social presence than non-mediated communication [6],
The constructivist learning theory values the process of
thus communication efficacy is likely to be hampered.
constructing a shared body of knowledge. Similarly,
ALNs are generally low in social presence.
ALN is modeled as a collection of knowledge sharing
Communication between learners tends to become task-
and learning processes [3], consisting of four phases:
oriented and impersonal [40], and there is likely more
discussion, interaction, adaptation and reflection [21].
informational influence during the problem solving and
The social process corresponds to the discussion phase,
decision-making process. Issues and arguments, rather
in which social skills develop. The response process
than personal antagonism, are often more focused with
matches the interaction phase, in which there is
decreasing level of social presence. However, the
interaction between the learner and some aspects of the
availability of visual and acoustic information may
world as defined by the instructor. The reasoning
determine a learner’s perception of their peers. Hence, a
process is similar to the adaptation and reflection phase,
certain degree of group processes may be impeded by
in which learners adapt their actions, and reflect to
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Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2002
modify their performances until they accord with the
Reasoning at the simple-clarification level means
instructor’s requirement. Although there is a non-
identifying the problem elements and their linkages; the
exhaustive list of learning processes, we highlight the
deep-clarification level means identifying problems in
social, response, and reasoning processes in this paper
details; the inference level means solving problems
based on the social interdependence theory [20] and
though methods such as induction and deduction; the
ALN process model [3].
judgment level means making decisions and
Socially situated learning is usually regarded as a
evaluations; the strategy level means generating a plan
process of drawing a learner’s central focus into the
for solving the particular problem. A learner’s
educational community [22]. During the social process,
individual accountability, the “sense of personal
a learner crosses the social threshold into full
responsibility for completing one’s share of the work
participation in learning, i.e., a change in the feeling of
and contributing to the work of the group” [3],
being outside to that of being a part of the community
contributes to a higher level of reasoning, as it keeps
[41]. The measurement for evaluating social process is
learners from relying on others. Improving these
the social value [3]. A high social value means that
learning processes within an ALN is likely to improve
there are more socializing comments unrelated to a
learning performance. Figure 1 summarizes the
specified subject, while a low social value means few or
concepts of interest in this study.
no socializing comment, and statements relate to a

specified subject. Learners are required to master basic

social skills, such as communicating accurately or
Figure 1. Concepts of Interest in This Study
clearly, solving conflicts constructively, and accepting

or supporting one another. Group reflection and positive
Collaborative Le
arning Environment
interdependence of learners can also contribute to a high


social value, with the analysis and adoption of useful

Social Process
peer suggestions and decisions. An interdependent


- social value
learner perceives that he/she would succeed if and only


Cross-Cultural
if the other learners succeed, and group success is
Communication*
Response Process
believed more important than individual success. The
- col-col
- non-responsive
coordination of learning efforts is likely to enhance
- ind-ind
- response-to-tutor
social skills and group reflection.

- ind-col
- response-to-learner
Understanding the interactions and responses,

especially how particular events lead to particular


responses, provides insight into how we can improve
Media
Reasoning Process

dialogues in ALNs. During the response process, a
Characteristics
- simple-clarification
learner communicates with other peers by receiving and

- social presence
- deep-clarification
responding to information, with strategies to continue

- inference
- judgment
the discussion thread. The measurement for evaluating

- strategy
response process is the degree of response. There are

three levels of response degree: non-responsive,
response-to-tutor and response-to-learner [3]. Non-

* col-col: collectivistic-collectivistic communication
responsive means that statements do not include a
ind-ind: individualistic-individualistic communication

ind-col: individualistic-collectivistic communication
response; response-to-tutor means responding to a

message sent by an educator; response-to-learner means
responding to a message sent by another learner. A high

degree of response can be fostered by consistent
4. Impacts on ALN Learning Processes
encouragement, help and feedback from each learner.

The social interaction is likely to create a positive
The learning process involves a lot of
environment that develops trust among learners, and
communication and interaction among learners. At the
overcomes their reticence in sharing viewpoints.
same time, communication is a product of culture, that
The cognitive dimension is usually the most
is, the way an individual communicates with others is
important because learning is essentially a process of
largely learnt from his/her culture orientation. Cross-
reasoning and critical thinking. During the reasoning
cultural communication can be an essential dimension
process, a learner displays his/her skills and knowledge
for effective education. For example, culturally
of solving problems. The measurement for evaluating
heterogeneous groups have been found to effectively
reasoning process is the level of reasoning. There are
use distributed GSS on a negotiation task [2]. In this
five levels of reasoning: simple-clarification, deep-
study, we will compare the performance of different
clarification, inference, judgment, and strategy.
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Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2002
asynchronous learning processes in various types of
that learners from collectivistic or individualistic
cross-cultural communication. As discussed in the
cultural contexts have different orientations of society,
literature review, there are four dimensions of national
learning patterns in the classroom, and perceptions of
culture, among which we will focus on individualism-
concepts [33]. For example, collectivistic cultures tend
collectivism. We have classified cross-cultural
to value peer coaching and learning from one another,
communication into intracultural (homogeneous) and
while individualistic cultures focus on individual
intercultural (heterogeneous) communication. While
responsibility for learning. This different cultural
intracultural communication is categorized as
orientation propagates conflicts during individualism-
collectivistic-collectivistic and individualistic-
collectivism communication. In addition, an
individualistic communication, intercultural
individualistic culture tends to praise learners to
communication is regarded as individualistic-
promote self-esteem, while a collectivistic culture may
collectivistic communication. The impacts of the type
emphasize criticism during learning. These conflicts on
of cross-cultural communication are considered with
cultural expectations are likely to affect social
respect to the learning processes involved in ALNs.
information processing in a learning environment.


4.1. Impacts on Social Process
Proposition 1.1: The social process of asynchronous
learning will result in higher social value during

intracultural communication than during
Cross-cultural communication requires learners to
intercultural communication.
exhibit good social behaviors and better group


interaction skills, aside from personal characteristics
Learners can be more effective when working
such as problem solving abilities. The social value of
interpersonally or cooperatively than competitively or
social process can be improved with better interaction
individualistically [20]. Positive interdependence in the
skills of the learners. One of the social skills is to
learning process can contribute to a higher social value
communicate with other learners accurately and clearly.
of social process, as the learners involved are likely to
During intracultural communication, namely believe in coordinating their efforts with their peers.
collectivistic-collectivistic or individualistic-
Positively interdependent learners help to improve one
individualistic communication, learners communicate
another’s learning, as each learner perceives that he/she
with other learners who are from the same cultural
would succeed if and only if all his/her peers succeed.
context. For learners in an individualistic culture, the
Learners from collectivistic cultural context are likely to
task is likely to prevail over relationship. In contrast, for
have more positive interdependence since they may care
learners in a collectivistic culture, the relationship may
more about the group’s success than individual success.
prevail over task. Therefore, when a learner contributes
Their cooperative experiences can help them to develop
some educational content during the communication,
better interaction skills, and more positive expectations
other learners from the same culture are likely to regard
of working in a group when compared to learners in a
these comments as accurate and easy to understand,
homogeneously competitive or individualistic setting
while learners from a different culture may not easily
[20]. Thus, we assume that learners within
understand or accept the indications of the information.
collectivistic-collectivistic communication have more
Having similar social skills that will lead to trusting and
positive interdependence than those within
supporting one another, learners in intracultural
individualistic-individualistic communication. A higher
communications are perceived to have better social
interdependence is likely to indicate improved social
value than those in intercultural communications. On
process of learning, thus the proposition that social
the other hand, due to the flexibility of synchronous and
process is more enhanced during communication among
asynchronous learning modes, ALNs allow for self-
learners belonging to a collectivistic culture rather than
paced learning and reflection. Considering group
those belonging to an individualistic culture.
reflection, being a component for improving the social

value of social learning process, we assume that
Proposition 1.2: The social process of asynchronous
learners in intracultural communications will constantly
learning will result in higher social value during
reflect and analyze one another’s behaviors. Consistent
collectivistic-collectivistic communication than during
group reflection among the culturally homogeneous
individualistic-individualistic communication.
learners enables these learners to understand their group

members’ activities better, who will be more likely to
Social presence is an important concept for
make constructive decisions. Therefore, we propose that
understanding interpersonal relationships in learning
the social process of learning is better during
[40]. A high degree of social presence supported by the
intracultural communication than during intercultural
media during cross-cultural communication means that
communication. Furthermore, previous work suggested
a learner is likely to perceive others as jointly involved
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Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2002
in the interaction. The availability of visual and acoustic
Proposition 2.2: The response process of
cues allows learners to process the learning situation
asynchronous learning will encourage higher degree
and embellish meaning in the interaction, which is
of response during individualistic-collectivistic
necessary for learners to communicate accurately and
communication than during individualistic-
clearly [39]. Higher immediacy also increases the
individualistic communication.
ability, whether in same-culture communication or

different-culture communication, to interact and
The ability of some communication technologies to
develop social skills detrimental to the social learning
support simultaneous feedback can signal listenership
process. Higher social presence can also improve group
and turn-taking during the learning process [26]. The
reflection on learning, and enhance the decisions to
lack of simultaneous feedback can cause discontinuity
make during the learning process [40]. Along this line
in the interaction, and make it difficult for learners to
of thought, social process of learning may be impeded
tailor their responses to the recipients. In addition to
to a certain degree by low social presence of ALNs.
sequencing of information, the lack of immediacy and
When social presence increases, interpersonal
social cues can deter effective interaction among the
relationships are likely to improve [40]. Therefore, we
learners. Although one-way transmission protocols can
propose that the social process of asynchronous learning
also enable simultaneous feedback and synchronism,
is superior for media having higher social presence in
most responses occur at different times, and may
all types of cross-cultural communication lengthen the entire learning process. According to the
(individualistic-individualistic, collectivistic-
media richness theory, if information is delivered on a
collectivistic, and individualistic-collectivistic).
medium that is not suitable for the content and context,

that information will be ineffective, and likely to be
Proposition 1.3: The social process of asynchronous
misinterpreted by the receiver, thus affecting the
learning will result in higher social value with media
responsiveness of that receiver. A feeling of low
having higher social presence than with media having
interactivity can be created when an immediate
lower social presence during cross-cultural response is expected but not received. Assuming that
communication.
the presence of informational cues enables friendly

interaction, media supported by higher social presence
4.2. Impacts on Response Process
can improve the response process.


Proposition 2.3: The response process of
Learners from collectivistic cultural context care
asynchronous learning will encourage higher degree
more about group harmony, mutual relationship, and
of response with media having higher social presence
group achievement than those from individualistic
than with media having lower social presence during
context. Therefore, the former is likely to have more
cross-cultural communication.
positive interdependence, and learners are likely to
provide more help, feedback, and resources to group

members. More interaction and higher responsiveness
4.3. Impacts on Reasoning Process
can be achieved. Accordingly, we expect that during

collectivistic-collectivistic communication, learners
Reasoning, or thought, is an individual attribute,
respond to one another, thus having a higher degree of
and learners can share the product, but not the process
response. During intercultural communication, of reasoning [30]. Previous studies have found that
members from collectivistic culture may produce many
learners achieved more academically in cooperative
responses to the tutor or other learners, and probably get
than individualistic interaction [20]. Individualistic
active responses from those who are from
learners tend to emphasize on individual achievement.
individualistic culture. Degree of response during such
They tend to be candid, independent, and responsible in
communication is likely to be between that of
completing one’s share of the work [30], with greater
collectivistic-collectivistic communication and that of
individual accountability than those from a collectivistic
individualistic-individualistic communication.
culture. Although collectivism does not degrade

responsibility, it may not ultimately take an individual
Proposition 2.1: The response process of to account for the group’s decision [30]. Collectivistic
asynchronous learning will encourage higher degree
learners’ high mutual dependence is likely to create a
of response during collectivistic-collectivistic lower level of reasoning. Therefore, we assume that
communication than during individualistic-
learners have a higher level of reasoning in a
collectivistic communication.
homogeneously individualistic communication. During

individualistic-collectivistic communication, learners
from individualistic cultural context may contribute
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Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2002
more reasoning strategies than those from collectivistic
process. Another conclusion is that the contingency of
cultural context. The level of reasoning during such
media’s social presence has positive effect on the social
communication is likely to be between that of
and response processes of learning. On the other hand,
individualistic-individualistic communication and that
the application of ALN can affect the feature of
of collectivistic-collectivistic communication.
different cultural contexts. By using ALN, learners from

an individualistic cultural context might emphasize
Proposition 3.1: The reasoning process of
more on group achievement or relationship than before,
asynchronous learning has higher level of reasoning
and learners from a collectivistic context might become
during individualistic-individualistic communication
more independent and insistent on their own opinion
than during individualistic-collectivistic
during the reasoning process. Future research should
communication.
work toward greater understanding of this aspect.

In addition, problems of cross-cultural learning
Proposition 3.2: The reasoning process of
might be due to differences in language, cultural values,
asynchronous learning has higher level of reasoning
and the types of learning strategies preferred. Except for
during individualistic-collectivistic communication
individualism-collectivism, there are three other
than during collectivistic-collectivistic communication.
dimensions of national culture that can affect

asynchronous learning processes. For example, power
The propositions above are summarized in Table 1.
distance, which is an often-studied dimension in GSS

research, also affects group discussion or other group
Table 1. Cross-Cultural Communication
activities during asynchronous learning. These
Effects on ALN Learning Processes
dimensions should be studied in future research.

This paper has considered the influence of social
presence on the relationship between individualism-
Processes Propositions1
collectivism and asynchronous learning processes.
( C*-C* > I*-I* > I*-C* )
Being a salient factor for communication effectiveness,
Social Process
> ( C-C > I-I > I-C )
the social presence afforded by the media during cross-
( C*-C* > I*-C* > I*-I* )
cultural communication is likely to affect the social and
Response Process
> ( C-C > I-C > I-I )
response processes of ALNs. The factors relevant to
improve learning processes have been discussed.
Reasoning Process
I-I > I-C > C-C
Previous studies have investigated the factors
1 C – collectivistic; I – individualistic;
influencing users’ choice of communication media [9].
C-C – collectivistic-collectivistic communication;
Media can affect the perceptions of distributed groups
I-I – individualistic-individualistic communication;
I-C – individualistic-collectivistic communication.
over time [7]. Since ALNs allow people to learn
* represents higher social presence; for example, for individualistic-
together independent of time, place and pace, it is also
individualistic communication, I*-I* connotes higher social presence
interesting to understand media effects upon groups of
than I-I.
learners over time. Once technologies are incorporated

into actual learning environments, it is critical that
5. Implications
group communication processes are tailored according

to the cultural characteristic of the group.
It is essential to understand what constitutes an

effective instruction for online cross-cultural learning
6. Concluding Remarks
since an individualistic culture may differ remarkably

from a collectivistic culture. There has been research
ALNs, a teaching and learning environment located
conducted on the effectiveness of ALNs on learning
within a technological context, can be used to support
outcomes, but less on the cultural dimension. The
instructor-learner and learner-learner communication,
propositions given above are part of our research work
and to aid collaborative learning across different
in studying the relationship between culture difference
cultures. An individual’s learning process, combined
and ALN. From the propositions, we assume that ALN
with asynchronous interactivity with other learners, can
performance is affected by different cultural contexts
be enhanced with the proliferation of communication
(in this paper we focus on individualism-collectivism).
technologies. Such technologies can strengthen and
Table 1 points towards a conclusion that good group
increase additional communication cues during group
cooperation, a feature of collectivistic-collectivistic
activities [8]. Due to its unique features, ALN provides
communication, benefits the social and response
strong support for the collaborative learning process. It
processes of asynchronous learning, while individual
helps in teaming up groups of people who are unable to
activity and achievement, features of individualistic-
meet face-to-face, and facilitates group interactions.
individualistic communication, benefit the reasoning
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Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2002
As a type of electronically distributed work groups,
and Chinese Value Surveys. Journal of Personality and Social
ALN can perform effectively in the long run with
Psychology, 55(6), 1009-1015.
adequate time and training. Better performance on

group process dimensions, such as cohesiveness and
[6] Burke, K. and Chidambaram, L. (1996). Do Mediated
equality of participation, can be achieved in comparison
Contexts Differ in Information Richness? A Comparison of
Collocated and Dispersed Meetings, in Proceedings of the
with face-to-face communication [8]. In this way,
Twenty-Ninth Hawaii International Conference on System
people from difference cultures can learn together in
Sciences, pp.92-101.
groups collaboratively and conveniently. As a matter of

fact, culture differences have become more embedded
[7] Burke, K., Aytes, K., Chidambaram, L. and Johnson, J. J.
in learning processes with the occurrence of cross-
(1999). A Study of Partially Distributed Work Groups: The
cultural education. For example, many learners from
Impact of Media, Location, and Time on Perceptions and
collectivistic cultural context are now residing in US, an
Performance. Small Group Research, 30(4), 453-490.
individualistic cultural context, for education.

Therefore, conflicts may occur between learners from
[8] Chidambaram, L. and Jones, B. (1993). Impact of
different cultural contexts. However, not much research
Communication Medium and Computer Support on Group
has been done about cultural factors within ALN,
Perceptions and Performance: A Comparison of Face-to-Face
and Dispersed Meetings. MIS Quarterly, 17(4), 465-491.
especially in cross-cultural cases. Cultural pluralism can

create positive learning outcomes such as improved
[9] Chidambaram, L., Lim, L. H. and Chan, H. C. (1998). The
working relationships, better interaction skills, and
Media Coexistence Approach: Organizational and Individual
growth in cognitive reasoning [20]. On the other hand,
Determinants of Media Choice in Singapore, in Proceedings
cultural diversity in learning can lead to negative
of the Thirty-First Annual Hawaii International Conference
relationships characterized by hostility, rejection,
on Systems Sciences, pp.118-126.
stereotyping, and prejudice. In this study, we try to find

out how well ALN is working within different types of
[10] Daft, R. L. and Lengel, R. H. (1986). Organizational
cross-cultural communication with the consideration of
Information Requirements, Media Richness and Structural
media effects. The propositions in this study aim to
Design. Management Science, 32(5), 554-571.
highlight unique cultural attributes of communication

[11] Gudykunst, W. B. (1997). Cultural Variability in
that will help to adapt ALNs to different cultural
Communication. Communication Research, 24(4), 327-348.
contexts. This will provide practitioners with more

innovative ideas during the design of asynchronous
[12] Gunawardena, C. N. and Zittle, F. J. (1997). Social
learning applications [43], and set more research
Presence as a Predictor of Satisfaction Within a Computer-
opportunities within this area of study.
mediated Conferencing Environment. The American Journal

of Distance Education, 11, 8-26.
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