Cultural Borders and Mental Barriers: The Relationship Between Living Abroad and Creativity

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
© 2009 American Psychological Association
2009, Vol. 96, No. 5, 1047–1061
0022-3514/09/$12.00
DOI: 10.1037/a0014861
Cultural Borders and Mental Barriers:
The Relationship Between Living Abroad and Creativity
William W. Maddux
Adam D. Galinsky
INSEAD
Northwestern University
Despite abundant anecdotal evidence that creativity is associated with living in foreign countries, there
is currently little empirical evidence for this relationship. Five studies employing a multimethod approach
systematically explored the link between living abroad and creativity. Using both individual and dyadic
creativity tasks, Studies 1 and 2 provided initial demonstrations that time spent living abroad (but not
time spent traveling abroad) showed a positive relationship with creativity. Study 3 demonstrated that
priming foreign living experiences temporarily enhanced creative tendencies for participants who had
previously lived abroad. In Study 4, the degree to which individuals had adapted to different cultures
while living abroad mediated the link between foreign living experience and creativity. Study 5 found
that priming the experience of adapting to a foreign culture temporarily enhanced creativity for
participants who had previously lived abroad. The relationship between living abroad and creativity was
consistent across a number of creativity measures (including those measuring insight, association, and
generation), as well as with masters of business administration and undergraduate samples, both in the
United States and Europe, demonstrating the robustness of this phenomenon.
Keywords: creativity, culture, living abroad, cognition, negotiations
Creativity, which is typically defined as the process of bring-
Despite the mysterious nature of creative insight, over the past
ing into being something that is both novel and useful, is one of
several decades, researchers have managed to shed light on many
the most intriguing psychological phenomena. The definition of
of the psychological factors that are vital to the creative process.
the word create—to cause to exist; to bring into being—implies
However, one of the most common lay assumptions regarding
something profound, almost godlike, which is perhaps the ori-
creativity—that living abroad is associated with creative in-
gin of the phrase “divine inspiration.” Although hard work,
sights—remains unstudied. In particular, living abroad is often
effort, and training are a significant part of the creative process
seen as a necessary experience for aspiring artists, and there is
(e.g., Amabile, 1996; Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Sawyer, 2006;
abundant anecdotal evidence for the idea that some creative indi-
Simonton, 1997), there is an insight component that is critical
viduals produce their best known masterworks during or following
as well, one that seems to work at an unconscious and inacces-
a stint abroad (e.g., Vladimir Nabokov and his novel Lolita, Ernest
sible level (Schooler & Melcher, 1995). This moment of dis-
Hemingway and his The Sun Also Rises). In fact, all four winners
covery is the magical “a-ha” moment, the point at which an idea
of the Nobel Prize in literature who are from Ireland (Yeats, Shaw,
leaps into consciousness, a moment that is sudden, abstract, and
Beckett, and Heaney) spent significant portions of their lives
seemingly without logic.
abroad. In addition to writers, many famous painters, (e.g., Gau-
guin and Picasso) and composers (e.g., Handel, Prokofiev, Stra-
vinsky, and Schoenberg) created many of their most admired
works while living in foreign countries. Although certain locations
William W. Maddux, Organisational Behaviour Area, INSEAD, Fon-
and time periods (e.g., 20th century Paris) may be particularly
tainebleau, France; Adam D. Galinsky, Department of Management and
Organizations Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University.
stimulating for a creative mind, the diversity of these examples
This research was supported by a grant to William W. Maddux from the
suggests that there may be an important link between living abroad
INSEAD Research and Development Committee (we thank the INSEAD
and creative production. For example, Paul Gauguin, a Frenchman,
alumni fund for their support) and a grant to William W. Maddux from the
painted his signature pieces in Tahiti; Vladamir Nabokov, a Rus-
Dispute Resolution Research Center at the Kellogg School of Management.
sian, wrote his masterpieces in America; and George Handel, a
Portions of this research were conducted at the INSEAD Social Science
German, composed his Messiah in England. The novelist Richard
Research Centre in Paris, France. For valuable assistance with translation,
Stern noted the particular importance of living abroad for a cre-
data collection, and coding, we thank Liselott Pettersson, Cecile Adam,
ative mindset:
Dimitri Vasiljevic, Hajo Adam, Caroline Leygue, Katie Dover-Taylor, and
Laura Howland. We also are grateful to Gerard Saucier, Marilynn Brewer,
Chi-yue Chiu, Angela Leung, and Jamie Barden for very helpful comments
Once I went [abroad] it was extremely exciting for me to become a
on this article.
new personality, to be detached from everything that bound me,
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to William
noticing everything that was different. That noticing of difference was
W. Maddux, INSEAD, Organisational Behaviour Area, Boulevard de
very important. How things were said that were different, the different
Constance, 77305 Fontainebleau Cedex, France. E-mail: William
formulas . . . . So being abroad has been very important. (quoted in
.maddux@insead.edu
Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, p. 129)
1047

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1048
MADDUX AND GALINSKY
All of these examples suggest that there may be something
son, 2001), a finding that belies the stereotype of the “starving
about the experience of living abroad that is important for the
artist.”
creative process, that spending time in new cultures can transform
individuals into more creative beings. Of course, another way to
Diverse Experiences and Creativity
look at these examples is that creative individuals are more likely
to live abroad than are less creative people. Both directions are
Directly relevant to the present investigation, empirical evidence
certainly possible, as well. Disentangling the causal direction of
suggests a general relationship between diverse experiences and
this effect is difficult, and in the current article, our goal is simply
enhanced creativity. For example, creativity is found at relatively
to provide the first empirical evidence for the link between expe-
high rates among first- or second-generation immigrants (Lambert,
riences living in foreign countries and creativity. To do so, we
Tucker, & d’Anglejan, 1973; Simonton, 1994, 1997, 1999), among
conducted five studies in which we used a multimethod approach
bilingual people (Nemeth & Kwan, 1987; Simonton, 1999), and
to test whether there is a positive and reliable relationship between
within diverse groups (Guimera, Uzzi, Spiro, & Nunes Amaral,
living abroad and creativity.
2005; Levine & Moreland, 2004; Nemeth & Kwan, 1987; Simon-
ton, 2003). Even civilizations become more creative after opening
Psychological Variables Associated With Enhanced
themselves to outside influences (Simonton, 1994, 1997).
Reviewing this and other research, Leung, Maddux, Galinsky,
Creativity
and Chiu (2008) concluded that the extant evidence suggests that
Research has identified a number of personality and contextual
certain types of multicultural exposure or experience can enhance
factors related to the creative process, exploring how individual
creativity. For example, Leung and Chiu (in press) found that a
differences or the social context predict creative performance.
composite measure of multicultural experience (including friends’
and favorite musicians’ ethnicities, preferences for ethnic food,
Personality Characteristics
family immigration history) predicted creative gift ideas. In addi-
tion, participants who were shown a slide show comparing Amer-
Studies on creative personalities have consistently demonstrated
ican and Chinese cultures in the laboratory were subsequently
that a number of personality traits tend to be found more often, or
more creative on a story-writing task than were participants
at higher levels, in creative than in noncreative individuals. Large-
who were simply shown slides about only American or only
scale investigations of creative individuals and meta-analyses have
Chinese culture. Overall, then, diverse experiences and con-
found that above-average intelligence, tolerance of ambiguity,
texts, and certain types of multicultural experience or exposure,
risk-taking, energy, self-confidence, intrinsic motivation, ambi-
are associated with creativity.
tion, and cognitive flexibility are common traits in creative types
(MacKinnon, 1978; for reviews, see Feist, 1998, 1999; Simonton,
The Association Between Living Abroad and Creativity
2000, 2003). In addition, the Big Five personality variables (in-
troversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, open-
Although Leung et al.’s (2008) review suggested that different
ness to experience; e.g., McCrae & Costa, 1987) have all been
types of multicultural experience or exposure are related to cre-
shown to be associated with creativity (for reviews, see Feist,
ativity, no one has yet presented empirical evidence for our spe-
1998, 1999), with openness to experience showing the most robust
cific hypothesis that experiences living abroad may be related to
association (e.g., McCrae, 1987). Although a typical creative pro-
creativity. It is important to note that although Leung and Chiu’s
file may vary somewhat across domain and industry (for example,
(in press) measure of multicultural experience predicted creativity,
creative artists tend to have somewhat different personality pro-
this measure does not take into account any experiences in foreign
files than creative scientists; see Feist, 1998, 1999), there is broad
countries, including living abroad. Thus, the major aim of the
consistency in what constitutes the creative personality.
present research was to test systematically and for the first time
whether the experience of living in a foreign country is associated
Contextual Variables
with creativity.
It is noteworthy that foreign living experiences contain many of
In addition to personality factors, a number of contextual factors
the critical elements necessary to stimulate the creative process
have been shown to facilitate creativity. Most notably, it is clear
(e.g., Ward, Smith, & Finke, 1999). First, living abroad can allow
that individuals who pursue tasks for intrinsic, rather than extrin-
individuals access to a greater number of novel ideas and concepts,
sic, purposes show enhanced creativity (e.g., Amabile, 1985; Am-
which can then act as inputs for the creative process. Second,
abile & Gitomer, 1984; for a review, see Amabile, 1996). In
living abroad may allow people to approach problems from dif-
addition, temporarily activating a promotion-oriented regulatory
ferent perspectives. For example, in some cultures (e.g., China),
focus can lead to enhanced creativity (R. S. Friedman & Fo¨rster,
leaving food on one’s plate is an implicit sign of appreciation,
2001). A distant future focus, compared with near future focus, can
implying that the host has provided enough to eat (Seligman,
lead to more creative negotiation outcomes (Okhuysen, Galinsky,
1999). In other countries (e.g., the United States) the same behav-
& Uptigrove, 2003) and to enhanced creative insight on individual
ior may often be taken as an insult, a condemnation of the quality
problem-solving tasks (Fo¨rster, Friedman, & Liberman, 2004).
of the meal. Thus, those with experience living in foreign countries
And inducing a counterfactual mindset can also enhance insight
should be more likely to recognize that the same form (i.e., surface
(Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000; Markman, Lindberg, Kray, &
behavior) may have different functions (i.e., meanings) in different
Galinsky, 2007), as can positive or ambiguous affective states
cultures. Third, experiences in foreign cultures can increase the
(Amabile, Barsade, Mueller, & Staw, 2005; Fong, 2006; Fredrick-
psychological readiness to accept and recruit ideas from unfamiliar

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LIVING ABROAD AND CREATIVITY
1049
sources, thus facilitating the processes of unconscious idea recom-
table: a candle, a pack of matches, and a box of tacks, all of which
bination (Schooler & Melcher, 1995) and conceptual expansion
are next to a cardboard wall. The task is to figure out, using only
(Leung et al., 2008; Ward, 1994), which are important for the
the objects on the table, how to attach the candle to the wall so that
creative process. Thus, an individual who has lived abroad may be
the candle burns properly and does not drip wax on the table or the
better able to generate and integrate ideas in novel ways.
floor. The correct solution involves using the box of tacks as a
candleholder: One should empty the box of tacks and then tack it
Overview
to the wall placing the candle inside. The solution is considered a
measure of insight creativity because it involves the ability to see
In Studies 1 and 2, we measured living and traveling experi-
objects as performing different functions from what is typical (i.e.,
ences in foreign countries as an individual difference and exam-
the box is not just a repository for tacks but can also be used as a
ined whether such experiences were associated with more creativ-
ity. In Study 3, we primed cognitions associated with living abroad
stand). In other words, there is a hidden solution to the problem
and examined whether they can temporarily enhance creativity for
that is inconsistent with preexisting associations and expectations
a sample of individuals who had previously lived abroad. In Study
(Duncker, 1945; Glucksberg & Weisberg, 1966).
4, we explored whether adapting to foreign cultures while living
Participants.
Participants were 205 full-time masters of busi-
abroad mediates the link between living in foreign countries and
ness administration (MBA) students at a large business school in
creativity. In Study 5, we explored whether activating the experi-
the United States (127 men, 78 women) who participated as part of
ence of adaptation among those who have lived abroad temporarily
an exercise prior to a lecture on culture and communication. The
enhances creativity on an idea-generation task. Across all five
average age of participants was 27.7 years (SD
2.06). One
studies, we consistently found that living (but not traveling) in and
hundred fifty participants were American citizens, and 55 were
adapting to other cultures was associated with greater creativity.
citizens of foreign countries, including Bangladesh (1), Brazil (4),
Canada (7), China (1), Ecuador (1), the Philippines (1), France (1),
Study 1: Predicting the Duncker Candle Problem From
Germany (1), Hong Kong (1), Italy (1), Ireland (1), India (12),
Foreign Experiences
Japan (5), Korea (1), Mexico (1), Morocco (1), Pakistan (1), Peru
(2), Puerto Rico (1), Russia (1), Singapore (1), Switzerland (1),
Study 1 was an initial study designed as an exploratory test of
Thailand (1), Taiwan (1), and the United Kingdom (5).
our hypothesis. In this study, we simply measured amount of time
Procedure.
The day before the lecture, participants were
living and traveling abroad as an individual difference and then
e-mailed and asked to complete an exercise ostensibly related to
examined how these experiences were related to participants’
the lecture the following evening. Participants were instructed to
creative abilities.
follow a link to a website which presented the color picture of the
Duncker candle problem shown in Figure 1. The instructions
Method
indicated that the task was to try to figure out how to attach the
Creativity task.
The creative task used in Study 1 was the
candle to the wall so that no wax would drip on the table or floor
Duncker candle problem (see Figure 1). In this problem, individ-
when the candle was lit. The instructions explicitly indicated that
uals are presented with a picture containing several objects on a
only the objects on the table could be used to solve the problem.
Figure 1.
Duncker Candle Problem, Studies 1 and 4.

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1050
MADDUX AND GALINSKY
Participants were instructed to type their answer in a text box
to live abroad, it can give us more confidence that there is a unique
placed below the picture.
relationship between living abroad and creativity.
Participants next answered subsequent background questions
that assessed their age, gender, nationality, and (a) whether they
had lived in a foreign country (i.e., not their native country)
Method
previously, and if so, for how long, and, (b) whether they had
Creativity task.
Study 2 involved a negotiation over the sale of
traveled in a foreign country before, and if so, for how long. These
a gas station (see Galinsky, Maddux, Gilin, & White, 2008; Mad-
measures of cross-cultural experience served as our main indepen-
dux, Mullen, & Galinsky, 2008). In this exercise, a deal based
dent measures.
solely on sale price was impossible. Specifically, the buyer’s
reservation price (the maximum he or she was authorized to pay)
Results and Discussion
was lower than the seller’s reservation price (the minimum he or
she was willing to accept), resulting in a “negative bargaining
Percentage of participants with cross-cultural experience.
zone” for sale price. However, the two parties’ underlying interests
One hundred thirty-five of the 205 participants (66%) indicated
were compatible: The buyer wanted to hire managers to run the
that they had experience living in a foreign country or foreign
station, and the seller needed sufficient funds to finance a two-year
countries (M
2.98 years; SD
4.92). Two hundred two out of
sailboat trip while also needing employment for after the trip.
the 205 participants (98.5%) said that they had traveled abroad
Thus, the parties could agree to a sale price below the seller’s
previously (M
32.59 weeks; SD
25.95).
reservation price, but with a stipulation of future employment, with
Creative problem solving and relationship to cross-cultural
the value of a future job allowing the seller to satisfy his/her
experience.
Solutions were coded as correct or incorrect; to be
interests despite going below their stated reservation price.
considered correct, responses had to include the use of the box of
In this exercise, dyads often reach impasses because they tend to
tacks as a candleholder. Overall, 111 of the 205 participants solved
focus only on the sale price of the station. Indeed, for many
the problem correctly (54.1%). A hierarchical, binary logistic
negotiators, even experienced ones, seeking overlap on monetary
regression was run as our main analysis, with age, gender, and
terms is often seen as the only way to achieve a deal in negotia-
nationality (U.S. citizen/foreign citizen) entered on the first block
tions. Given that there is a hidden solution in this task that is
as control variables, and with time living and traveling abroad
inconsistent with previous associations and expectations (i.e., ne-
entered on the second block. After we controlled for age, gender,
gotiators cannot achieve a deal via sale price alone), this task, like
and nationality (R2
.018), results from Step 2 of the regression
the Duncker candle problem in Study 1, is structured as an insight
indicated that the amount of time individuals had spent living
creativity task within a negotiation context. It is also important to
abroad emerged as a significant positive predictor of creative
note that such creative solutions were not explicitly suggested in
solutions (B
.078, SE
.038, Wald
4.26, p
.039, R2
the materials for this particular negotiation exercise: The sale price
.064). By contrast, time spent traveling abroad showed a signifi-
of the stations was presented as the only issue up for negotiation.
cant but negative relationship to creative solutions (B
.004,
Thus, participants had to discover such alternative solutions spon-
SE
.002, Wald
3.87, p
.049). Thus, the more time
taneously during the course of the negotiation.
individuals had spent living abroad (but not traveling abroad), the
On the basis of a previously established coding scheme (Galin-
more likely they were to solve the Duncker candle problem.
sky, Maddux, et al., 2008; Maddux et al., 2008), an outcome was
considered an acceptable and creative deal if the terms involved (a)
a sale price not greater than the buyer’s reservation price or less
Study 2: Predicting Creative Negotiation Deals From
than the seller’s reservation price and (b) the addition to some type
Foreign Experiences
of extra issue(s), such as a job, where the value of the issue(s)
could also help the seller meet his or her interests. Outcomes were
The goals for Study 2 were twofold. First, we wished to repli-
considered unsuccessful if they (a) involved only the sale price of
cate and extend the findings from Study 1 by using a very different
the station (which indicated a disregard for one of the parties’
type of creative context. To this end, we used an interpersonal
reservation prices), or (b) if parties reached an impasse.1
creativity task—a one-on-one negotiation—in which a creative yet
Participants.
Participants were 108 full-time MBA students at
hidden solution was necessary to achieve an acceptable deal.
a large business school in the United States (72 men, 36 women)
Second, because Study 1 was designed as an initial demonstration
who were enrolled in a negotiations class.2 Seventy-two partici-
of the hypothesized relationship between creativity and time spent
pants were U.S. citizens, and 36 were citizens of foreign countries,
living abroad, it did not control for many personality variables that
including Australia (2), Brazil (4), China (6), France (1), Italy (1),
might be related to both creativity and time spent living abroad.
India (3), Indonesia (1), Japan (5), Korea (1), New Zealand (1),
Thus, Study 1 results are open to self-selection concerns: As noted
Romania (1), Peru (1), Pakistan (1), Thailand (5), and the United
in the introduction, personality differences could lead people to
Kingdom (2). Participants participated in the study as part of an
both live abroad and be more creative. As a result, in Study 2, we
in-class exercise at the beginning of the academic quarter.
controlled for a variety of personality variables, most notably the
Big Five personality variables (e.g., McCrae & Costa, 1987), all of
which have been previously linked to creativity (for reviews, see
1 We considered the actual terms of the deal of less importance than the
Feist, 1998, 1999). We also controlled for academic performance,
presence of a creative deal itself.
gender, and nationality. Although controlling for such variables
2 There was no overlap in participant samples in Study 1 and Study 2.
cannot rule out the possibility that creative people are more likely
Age was not recorded in this study.

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LIVING ABROAD AND CREATIVITY
1051
Procedure.
Participants were randomly assigned to dyads,
second step, we entered total time spent traveling abroad and total
with one playing the role of buyer and one the role of seller. One
amount of time living abroad (Step 2 R2
.553). Our main
week prior to the negotiation, participants were given confidential
dependent variable was whether or not an acceptable deal had been
role instructions for the Texoil negotiation (S. Goldberg, 2000) and
reached.
told to prepare for their roles by themselves and not to exchange
Results were consistent with those in Study 1 (see Table 1).
any information with their partner or classmates prior to the
Once again, the amount of time spent living abroad, but not
negotiation. During the regular class period, participants per-
traveling abroad, significantly predicted whether a deal was
formed the face-to-face negotiation in separate and isolated rooms
reached, even when we controlled for a variety of important
and were given 50 min to negotiate a deal.
personality and demographic factors. Openness to experience pre-
Control and independent variables.
To control for a number of
dicted creative deals, in line with previous research (McCrae,
important individual-difference variables, 1 week after the nego-
1987); in addition, extroversion was significant, which makes
tiation exercise, we gave participants a background questionnaire
sense given that sharing information about the seller’s planned trip
which assessed major aspects of personality: the Big Five person-
is crucial to discovering an acceptable deal. Agreeableness showed
ality traits (e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1985). The five-factor structure
a significant negative relationship to deal-making, consistent with
of personality has been replicated in a number of studies (for a
previous research (Feist, 1998, 1999) and work on empathy show-
review, see Goldberg, 1993) and represents one of the best vali-
ing that negotiators who care too much about getting along with
dated personality frameworks (c.f. Saucier & Goldberg, 2001).
the other party can lose sight of their own interests and miss
Each factor (e.g., extroversion) captures several more specific
creative negotiation opportunities (e.g., Galinsky, Maddux, et al.,
facets (e.g., sociability), which, in turn, subsume a number of more
2008). It is important to note that, although other personality
specific traits and behaviors, some of which are also associated
factors predicted the presence of a creative deal, experience living
with creativity (i.e., openness to experience encompasses experi-
abroad once again showed a significant association with creativity
menting and independence, whereas emotional stability encom-
over and above these other personality variables.
passes confidence; Johnson & Ostendorf, 1993). The Big Five
include (1) extroversion (associated with sociability and the ten-
Study 3: The Effect of Priming Foreign Experiences on
dency to be gregarious), (2) agreeableness (associated with coop-
the Remote Associates Test
eration, trust, and tolerance), (3) emotional stability (associated
with calmness, confidence, and lack of worry and insecurity), (4)
Results from Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated that experience
conscientiousness (associated with order, self-discipline, and con-
living abroad is a reliable predictor of creativity on both individual
sistency), and (5) openness to experience (associated with creativ-
and dyadic tasks. Because we controlled for a number of important
ity and curiosity). By controlling for these personality factors, all
personality factors that have been linked to creativity in Study 2,
of which have been previously linked to creativity (Feist, 1998,
we can have more confidence that there is a reliable relationship
1999), we sought to demonstrate that experience living abroad has
between living abroad and creativity. However, because correla-
a unique association with creativity. At the end of the quarter, we
tional studies cannot definitively rule out self-selection as a pos-
collected final class grades as a control for academic ability,3 and
sible alternative explanation, our goal in the next study was to
we recorded each participant’s gender and whether they were a
provide experimental evidence for the idea that cognitions about
U.S. citizen. Finally, we assessed our main independent variables:
one’s experiences abroad can facilitate temporary increases in
whether participants had lived and traveled abroad (i.e., not in their
creativity. Thus, in Study 3, we asked a sample of participants, all
native country) before and, if so, for how long.
of whom had lived abroad, to write about one of several experi-
ences— either (a) living abroad, (b) traveling abroad, or (c) having
one of two types of nonforeign experiences—and then assessed
Results and Discussion
subsequent creativity. We expected that priming cognitions and
Cross-cultural experience and percentage of deals.
Overall,
experiences associated with living abroad would temporarily fa-
81 out of 108 participants (75%) indicated that they had experience
cilitate creative tendencies.
living in a foreign country (M
6.64 years; SD
7.81). In
We sampled only participants who had lived abroad to ensure
addition, 106 out of 108 participants (98.1%) indicated having
that all participants had concrete experiences available to make
traveled in a foreign country or foreign countries (M
11.90
mentally accessible, providing the most direct analog to the actual
weeks; SD
9.40). Overall, 30 of the 54 dyads (55.6%) discov-
experiences. There was also empirical justification for only using
ered a creative and acceptable solution within the parameters of
participants who had lived abroad: Other research has shown that
this exercise.4
the boosts in creativity after priming foreign culture experiences
Variables predicting whether a deal was reached.
We exam-
ined which of our independent and control variables predicted
3 Class grades were made up of three components: participation, a final
whether a successful deal had been struck. Our main analysis
paper, and a final exam. Outcomes of negotiation exercises were not part
consisted of a hierarchical binary logistic regression with the
of students’ final grades. Thus, this variable was a relatively general
following predictor variables calculated/coded at the dyadic level
measure of academic ability (ability to write and argue logically,
and entered on the first step of the regression: participant gender
memory for and application of course concepts), rather than negotiation
(coded as number of women in the dyad), nationality (coded as
prowess per se.
number of U.S. citizens in the dyad), final class grades, levels of
4 Out of the 24 dyads that did not reach a successful and acceptable deal,
extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientious-
10 reached an agreement on only the sale price of the station, whereas 14
ness, and openness to experience (Step 1 R2
.458). On the
reached an impasse.

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1052
MADDUX AND GALINSKY
Table 1
subsequent creativity, providing concrete experimental evidence
Personality/Demographic Predictors of Whether a Deal Was
for our hypothesis.
Reached in the Negotiation, Study 2
Finally, it is also important to point out that the experimental
nature of this study, in particular randomly assigning participants
Personality/demographic
Wald
to different conditions, effectively rules out self-selection concerns
variable
B
SE
statistic
p
by distributing preexisting individual personality and experience
Time lived abroad
0.016
0.007
4.603
.032
differences evenly across conditions. This is arguably the most
Time traveling abroad
0.001
0.056
0.000
.993
important aspect of experimental research design, and it allowed us
Gender
0.010
0.803
0.000
.990
to explore the causal impact of cognitions associated with living
Class grades
0.028
0.108
0.067
.796
abroad on creativity (e.g., Abelson, 1995; Aronson, Wildon, &
Nationality
1.266
0.687
3.392
.066
Brewer, 1998; Brewer, 2000).
Agreeableness
1.290
0.482
7.155
.007
Openness to experience
0.258
0.115
5.002
.025
Conscientiousness
0.232
0.207
1.258
.262
Method
Neuroticism
0.173
0.278
0.388
.533
Extraversion
0.578
0.216
7.140
.008
Creativity task.
The creative task in Study 3 was the Remote
Associates Test (RAT; S. Mednick, 1962), a creative association
Note.
Results presented are from Step 2 of the hierarchical regression.
test of convergent thinking. In this task, examinees are presented
Variables are coded/calculated at the dyadic level. Beta coefficients are
with three words and asked to come up with an additional word
unstandardized.
that can logically associate the three words. Participants were
given two examples: For the triad of words “manners, round,
tennis,” participants were told that the correct answer was “table”
occur only for individuals who have actually had the experience of
(i.e., table manners, round table, table tennis). For the triad of
living abroad. In a study conducted by Maddux, Adam, and
words “playing, credit, report,” the correct answer was “card” (i.e.,
Galinsky (2009), one group of participants was primed to think
playing card, credit card, report card). Participants were given 12
about an experience in which they learned something about a
triads to solve, and the number of correct responses served as our
foreign culture before performing the Duncker candle task; another
main dependent measure of creativity.5
group of participants was in a control condition. Maddux et al.
Participants.
Sixty-five undergraduates at a large university in
(2009) found an interaction between experimental primes and
France (29 men, 34 women, 2 gender undisclosed) participated in
participant’s experiences living abroad, with only those partici-
exchange for a coupon for a free coffee. All participants were
pants who had lived abroad showing an increased tendency to
French nationals and native French speakers. It is important to note
discover a creative solution after being primed with a foreign
that the information about the experiment indicated that for par-
learning experience.
ticipants to be eligible, they needed to have lived abroad (i.e.,
It is also important to note that an abundance of research in
outside of France) previously. All participants in the final sample
social and cognitive psychology has conclusively demonstrated
had such experience (M
4.57 years; SD
5.61).
that temporarily activating (or priming) a psychological construct
Experimental conditions.
Participants were randomly assigned
or mindset has the same psychological effects as when the con-
to one of four experimental conditions in a between-subjects
struct is measured as a chronically accessible individual difference,
design. The cover story indicated that the first experiment was a
but only when that mindset is available in memory (e.g., Bargh,
cognitive generation experiment and that we were interested in
Lombardi, & Higgins, 1988; Bruner, 1957; Higgins, 1996; Hig-
participants’ ability to mentally simulate certain events. In the
gins, King, & Mavin, 1982; see Higgins, 1990, for an empirical
living abroad condition, participants were asked to imagine living
and conceptual review). Specifically, Higgins (1990, p. 306) noted
in a foreign country and, in particular, about the types of things
that, “chronic individual differences in construct accessibility
that happen, how they feel and behave, and what they think during
function like temporary individual differences in construct acces-
a particular day living abroad. They were then asked to think and
sibility.” These temporary accessibility effects have also been
write about this experience for several minutes. In the traveling
found to specifically impact creativity. Directly relevant to the
abroad condition, participants were asked to imagine and write
current investigation, R. S. Friedman and Fo¨rester (2001, p. 1001)
about a day traveling in a foreign country. A third condition
demonstrated that “individual differences in regulatory focus in-
fluence creative problem solving in a manner analogous to that of
incidental promotion and prevention cues.” In other words, al-
5 All materials were translated into French from the English originals
though chronic individual differences in creative ability certainly
and were back-translated to check for accuracy and logic. Given the
exist, experimental manipulations that approximate these individ-
dependence on linguistic logic inherent in the RAT, however, we were
ual differences have also been shown to cause temporary boosts in
particularly conservative in selecting items. For example, we began with a
creativity. The moderating effect of availability also explains why
total of 18 items for initial translation, then pretested these items on several
Maddux et al. (2009) found no effect of experimental priming on
native French speakers to ensure equivalence. For example, (a) gold-stool-
tender (answer: bar) and (b) hall-car-swimming (answer: pool) did not
creativity when participants hadn’t lived abroad: Without those
translate well or make sense in French according to our pretest sample and,
experiences being available in memory, priming has little substan-
thus, were cut. Examples of items that were kept were (a) blank-white-
tive impact on subsequent cognition (Higgins, 1996). Thus, we
lines: PAPER (e´tage`re-page-auteur: LIVRE) and (b) magic-plush-floor:
reasoned that activating a mindset involving the explicit consid-
CARPET (volant-sol-tisser: TAPIS). We settled on a final total of 12 items
eration of the experience of living abroad among those who
that were linguistically and semantically equivalent, and these triads were
previously had such an experience would temporarily enhance
based on concept linkages, rather than linguistic linkages.

---

LIVING ABROAD AND CREATIVITY
1053
involved priming participants with cognitions associated with a
We ran subsequent analyses to examine the potential interaction
nonforeign experience: a day in their life in their hometown.
between time spent living abroad and experimental condition. In
Finally, a control condition involved a prime in which participants
particular, it stands to reason that the highest levels of creativity
were asked to recall and write about what happened the last time
may be seen for those participants in the living-abroad prime
they went to the supermarket (Gruenfeld, Inesi, Magee, & Galin-
condition who had lived abroad the longest. Thus, we ran a
sky, 2008; Rucker & Galinsky, 2008).
hierarchical linear regression with the main effects of experimental
After participants completed the priming task, they were asked
condition (comparing the living-abroad prime condition with the
to perform a second, separate experiment, ostensibly on cognitive
other three conditions) and time abroad entered on the first step
ability. This second task was the RAT, consisting of 12 triads.
and the interaction term entered on the second step. A significant
After receiving two examples (see above), participants were in-
Condition
Time Abroad interaction emerged,
.439, t(74)
structed to solve as many triads as possible.
.265, p
.010,
R2
.088, with the highest levels of creativity
Because the RAT is related to verbal and language ability (M. T.
occurring for those participants in the living-abroad prime condi-
Mednick & Andrews, 1967), we used postexperiment questions to
tion who had the longest time living abroad.
assess English language ability and included a measure of expo-
We ran a similar analysis to examine the potential interaction
sure to Anglophone countries to rule out English-language famil-
iarity or fluency as a confound of RAT ability. Participants were
between experimental condition and the question assessing how
queried on their English language ability, where they had lived
different participants’ host countries were from France. However,
abroad previously, and for how long. Finally, to examine cultural
a hierarchical linear regression with the main effects of experi-
distance or novelty as a potential moderator, we also asked par-
mental condition and cultural distance entered on the first step, and
ticipants how different the foreign countries in which they had
the interaction between condition and cultural distance entered on
lived or visited were from France. Participants were then de-
the second step, revealed a nonsignificant interaction between
briefed, compensated, and thanked for their time.
cultural distance and condition (
.076, p
.524, ns). Thus,
cultural distance was not an important moderator of the effect of
Results
priming foreign living experiences on creative association.
We conducted subsequent analyses to ensure that there were no
Given results from Studies 1 and 2, we predicted that partici-
confounding effects of participants’ English language ability and
pants in the living-abroad prime condition would show more
whether participants had lived abroad in Anglophone countries
subsequent creativity than would participants in the other three
previously. A chi-square analysis revealed no significant differen-
conditions. To test this prediction, we submitted the number of
tial exposure to Anglophone countries across conditions,
2(1,
correct RAT items to a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
75)
2.85, p
.415, ns. A one-way ANOVA with condition as
This analysis revealed a significant effect for priming condition,
the independent variable and English language ability as the cri-
F(3, 64)
3.15, p
.031, 2
.134. Pair-wise mean comparisons
indicated that participants in the living abroad condition (M
terion variable also revealed no significant differences across con-
7.07, SD
2.84) solved significantly more RAT problems cor-
ditions, F(1, 74)
0.254, p
.858, ns, confirming that random
rectly than did participants in the other three conditions: the
assignment of participants to conditions did in fact equalize any
traveling abroad condition (M
4.69, SD
3.46), F(1, 30)
preexisting individual differences, eliminating any potential ad-
4.35, p
.046,
2
.130; the hometown condition (M
4.79,
vantages in solving RAT items.
SD
2.68), F(1, 30)
5.79, p
.022, 2
.153; and the control
Thus, in a sample of individuals who had all lived abroad
condition (M
4.07, SD
2.09), F(1, 30)
9.46, p
.005, 2
previously, priming experiences associated with living abroad
.252. No other mean differences were significant ( ps
.42; see
temporarily produced a significant enhancement in subsequent
Figure 2).
creativity compared with priming other foreign or nonforeign
8
s 7
e
pons
s 6
e
t R
c
5
r
r
e
o
C
C
4
RAT
3
live abroad prime
travel abroad prime
hometown prime
control prime
Figure 2.
Mean number of correct responses on the Remote Associates Test (RAT; out of 12 total; S. Mednick,
1962) as a function of experimental condition, Study 3.

---

1054
MADDUX AND GALINSKY
experiences.6 In addition, this temporary facilitative effect of con-
Participants.
One hundred thirty-three MBA students (94
templating experiences living abroad was strongest for those par-
men, 39 women) who were enrolled in an introductory leadership
ticipants who had lived abroad the longest.
class at a large European business school participated as part of a
class exercise during the first 2 weeks of class. Students in the
Study 4: Adaptation as the Mediating Mechanism Behind
sample represented 40 different nationalities, and 15 students
the Foreign Culture Experiences–Creativity Link
indicated that they had dual nationalities. The most commonly
represented countries were France (16), India (15), the United
Results from Studies 1–3 consistently demonstrated that expe-
States (8), the United Kingdom (7), Italy (6), and Canada (6), with
riences and cognitions associated with living abroad predicted or
multiple students coming from China, Greece, Australia, Ger-
temporarily enhanced creative abilities. However, it remains un-
many, Japan, Korea, Lebanon, the Netherlands, Spain, Taiwan,
clear what underlying mechanism drives this link. Nevertheless,
Brazil, Russia, Israel, and the Ukraine.
the pattern of results from Studies 1–3, as well as results from
Procedure.
Prior to the first class of the academic period,
previous research, provides some suggestions. Because we found
participants were asked to complete an online survey concerning
that only living abroad (rather than traveling abroad) is associated
their background experiences. Students were first asked about their
with higher levels of creativity, it is possible that immersive
nationality and the total amount of time they had spent living
foreign experiences are particularly important. In addition, previ-
abroad (i.e., outside their native country), followed by questions
ous research suggests that simply exposing individuals to novel
cultural elements is not enough to lead to enhanced creativity: At
assessing the specific countries in which they had lived previously.
a minimum, individuals must actively compare multiple cultures
Students were provided with a maximum of three countries they
and do some cognitive work exploring the differences and simi-
could list (participants who had never lived abroad were told to
larities between multiple cultures to get enhanced creativity
skip this set of questions). Participants were then asked, vis-a`-vis
(Leung & Chiu, in press). Thus, it seems likely that the association
each of the foreign countries in which they had lived, the extent to
between living abroad and creativity would be weakest for those
which they had adapted themselves to the culture in each foreign
who remain aloof from their new culture (e.g., by associating only
country while living there. We then summed these responses to
with expatriates or being unwilling or unable to adapt their behav-
create an index of adaptation that took into account the extent and
ior to different cultural contexts) and strongest for those who adapt
number of different times participants had adapted to a foreign
themselves to a new culture by incorporating new modes of
culture. Subsequent questions assessed the Big Five personality
thinking and behaving.
traits, whether participants were native English speakers, the num-
Thus, we hypothesized that adaptation may be the key psycho-
ber of languages they spoke fluently, the number of countries in
logical element that explains why living abroad is associated with
which they had lived, and their age and gender. At the end of the
creativity. Because culture is such a pervasive force, impacting and
academic period, we obtained course grades and Graduate Man-
shaping every aspect of one’s life, adapting oneself to a new
culture—learning how to behave and think in different way—may
make individuals chronically aware of multiple perspectives and
approaches when dealing with mundane and novel situations and,
6 Following the completion of the experiment, we wanted to rule out
thus, may be associated with increased creativity. Going back to
additional alternative explanations for differences across living and trav-
the example of leftover food on a plate from the introduction, an
eling conditions based on possible systematic differences in what partici-
individual who has lived abroad can frame such a problem or
pants wrote about following the living/traveling primes. Thus, we had two
behavior in multiple ways, understanding that it has multiple
coders, blind to the experimental hypothesis, assess participants’ written
meanings depending on the cultural context (i.e., leftover food
responses following the primes in terms of (a) novelty of the experience,
could serve either as a complement or a criticism). Thus, individ-
(b) confidence in behaving, (c) positive and (d) negative affect experi-
uals who have adapted to multiple cultural contexts may be less
enced, and (e) mentions of speaking a foreign language. Coders also noted
the (f) country mentioned (if any), (g) context mentioned, and (h) specific
susceptible to functional fixedness, the inability to see objects
behaviors in which the participant engaged. Results revealed no systematic
performing atypical or novel functions, as with the box of tacks in
differences across the two conditions for novelty, confidence, affect, and
the Duncker candle task. In addition, adapting to and integrating a
language (all ps
.33). No systematic differences were found with
diverse set of ideas and behaviors may expose people to new ideas
language: 2 of 14 people in the living condition mentioned speaking or
and allow for individuals to more easily go through the process of
learning a new/foreign language, whereas 3 of 15 people in the traveling
unconscious idea recombination (Schooler & Melcher, 1995), as
condition mentioned it. No differences were noted in context: Relatively
well as conceptual expansion (Leung et al., 2008; Ward, 1994),
equal mentions in both conditions included being on the streets, in restau-
making it easier to be creative.
rants and cafes, at a university, or in no specific context. The only
As a result of this reasoning, the main goal for Study 4 was to
contextual differences not mentioned in both contexts were small: For the
obtain evidence that adaptation may be a critical underlying psy-
traveling condition, they included being at a movie (1), being at a museum
(1), lying on a beach (1), and shopping (3), whereas for the living condi-
chological mechanism responsible for driving the association be-
tion, they included being at home (3) or being in an office (2). Countries
tween living abroad and creativity.
written about did not reveal consistently different patterns across condition.
For the living condition, these included Australia (1), Brazil (1), Senegal
Method
(1), India (2) and the United States (1). For the traveling condition, these
included China (2), the United Kingdom (1), Turkey (1), Thailand (1), and
Creativity task.
As in Study 1, the Duncker candle task was
Vietnam (1). Spain was mentioned once in both conditions, and 7 people
used as our dependent measure.
in each condition mentioned no specific country.

---

LIVING ABROAD AND CREATIVITY
1055
agement Admission Test scores to control for general cognitive
and the adaptation index entered on the third step (Step 3 R2
ability.7
.328). Results from this analysis revealed that, as predicted, the
One week after the background questionnaire was presented,
extent to which participants had adapted themselves to the foreign
participants were asked to do a second (ostensibly unrelated) task
countries emerged as a significant predictor of creativity in this
as part of another class exercise. As in Study 1, students were
analysis (B
.309, SE
.103, Wald
8.96, p
.003), but the
provided with a link to a website where the Duncker candle
effect of time spent living abroad became nonsignificant (B
problem was presented; students were asked to take a few minutes
.006, SE
.004, Wald
2.20, p
.13), demonstrating that
to try to solve the problem, and a text box was provided for them
adaptation did in fact mediate the effect between time abroad and
to type their answers. Answers were scored in the same manner as
creativity (see Figure 3). In addition, a Sobel’s test (Sobel, 1982;
in Study 1.
Preacher & Leonardelli, 2003) indicated that the mediational effect
of adaptation was in fact significant (z
2.12, p
.034).
Results and Discussion
Study 5: Adaptation and Creative Generation of Alien
Experience living abroad and creative solutions.
Overall, 109
Drawings
out of 131 (83.2%) of students indicated that they had lived abroad
(i.e., outside their home country) previously. Overall, 57 out of 131
Although Study 4 provided evidence that adaptation is an im-
participants (43.5%) solved the Duncker problem correctly.
portant underlying psychological mechanism responsible for the
We ran a hierarchical, binary logistic regression analysis as our
association between living abroad and creativity, this study was
main analysis, with Duncker candle solutions, coded as correct or
again correlational, rather than experimental, in nature. Thus, in
not, as our dependent variable. On the first step, we entered our
Study 5, we ran an experimental study, randomly assigning par-
control variables: the Big Five, gender, age, class grades, Graduate
ticipants who had previously lived abroad to one of four experi-
Management Admission Test scores, languages spoken fluently,
mental priming conditions (one of which involved adapting to a
whether English was their native language, and number of coun-
foreign culture), then assessed the impact of such cognitions on
tries in which they had lived (Step 1 R2
.178). On the second
subsequent creativity in an unstructured creative generation task:
step, we added time lived abroad as our main independent variable
an alien drawing task (see Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson,
(Step 1 R2
.239). Replicating previous effects, time spent living
& Liljenquist, 2008; Kray, Galinsky, & Wong, 2006; Ward, 1994).
abroad significantly predicted creative solutions over and above
We predicted that people primed with cognitions about adapting to
other personality and individual difference variables (B
.010,
a new culture would be more likely to create alien creatures that
SE
.004, Wald
5.88, p
.015; see Table 2 for complete
were very different from those found on Earth.
results).
Mediational role of adaptation.
We then examined whether
Method
adaptation mediated the link between living abroad and creativity.
Using the same control variables as above, we first established that
Creativity task.
We used a creative generation task that in-
time abroad was a significant predictor of adaptation, B
.012,
volves drawing an alien creature. Following the procedure of Ward
SE
.004, t(131)
3.33, p
.001. We next ran a hierarchical
(1994), we asked participants to imagine going to another galaxy
binary logistic regression analysis with the control variables en-
in the universe, visiting a planet that is very different from Earth,
tered on the first step, time spent living abroad on the second step,
and encountering an alien creature there. Participants were then
asked to draw this alien they encountered.
Participants.
One hundred two undergraduates at a large uni-
versity in France (41 men, 61 women) participated in exchange for
Table 2
a free movie ticket. As in Study 3, information about the experi-
Personality/Demographic Predictors of Correct Solution to the
ment indicated that, for participants to be eligible, they needed to have
Duncker Candle Problem, Study 4
lived abroad previously and be fluent in French. All participants in the
Personality/demographic
Wald
final sample had lived abroad (M
2.61 years; SD
4.79). Eighty-
variable
B
SE
statistic
p
two were French citizens, whereas 20 were citizens of foreign coun-
tries, including Albania (2), Belgium, Cameroon (3), Columbia,
Time lived abroad
0.010
0.004
5.912
.015
Gender
0.029
0.499
0.003
.954
Congo, Estonia, Germany (2), Italy, Lebanon, Mexico, Romania (2),
Age
0.049
0.092
0.284
.594
Russia (2), Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.8
Extroversion
0.052
0.113
0.209
.647
Procedure.
As in Study 3, participants were asked to fill out
Emotional stability
0.077
0.111
0.488
.485
two questionnaires that were (ostensibly) part of two separate
Openness to experience
0.282
0.161
3.072
.080
experiments: a cognitive generation experiment (which constituted
Agreeableness
0.208
0.183
1.295
.255
Conscientiousness
0.110
0.114
0.935
.333
the priming task), and a cognitive ability task (which constituted
No. languages fluent
0.449
0.285
2.488
.115
English first language
0.040
0.511
0.006
.937
No. countries lived
0.091
0.133
0.469
.494
7 As in Study 2, course grades were made up of three components:
Grades
0.266
0.227
1.375
.241
participation, a paper, and a final exam.
GMAT scores
0.013
0.007
4.205
.040
8 Unlike Study 3, in which we limited participation to French nationals,
in Study 5, the creativity task was not related to verbal ability. Thus, we
Note.
GMAT
Graduate Management Admission Test. Results pre-
sented are from Step 2 of the hierarchical regression. Beta coefficients are
included non-French individuals who were fluent in French in the final
unstandardized.
sample.

---

1056
MADDUX AND GALINSKY
Extent to Which
Adapted While Abroad
.353***/.309**
.012*
010*/
.
.006ns
006
Creative Solution on
Time Lived Abroad
Duncker Candle
Problem
Figure 3.
Mediational analyses, Study 4. Numbers represent unstandardized regression coefficients.
p
.05.
p
.01.
p
.001.
our test of creativity). Participants in the control condition, how-
To capture specific aspects of creativity and novelty, we used a
ever, received a separate cover story that the experiment was about
similar coding scheme to that used by Ward (1994) and Kray et al.
cognitive ability; they did not receive the initial priming materials.
(2006). The coders also made judgments as to (a) how similar the
Experimental conditions.
The cover story was identical to that
aliens were to Earth creatures, (b) the extent to which participants
in Study 3. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four
seemed to take known Earth creatures into account when making
experimental conditions. In the adapt-prime condition, participants
their drawings, and (c) the extent to which participants took
were asked to imagine adapting themselves to a foreign culture and
general Earth animals into account when making their drawings.
to write about the types of things that would happen, how they
These responses were coded on 5-point unipolar scales, with
would feel and behave, and what they would think about during a
options ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). A second set
particular day adapting themselves to a foreign culture. In the
of questions examined the extent to which aliens had atypical
observe-prime condition, participants imagined and wrote about
features. Following Ward (1994), we focused primarily on sensory
observing a foreign culture. We then added two different types of
organs (e.g., eyes, mouth, nose, ears), with atypicalities including
control conditions. In the new sport-prime condition, participants
(a) lacking a major sensory organ, (b) having atypical numbers of
recalled and wrote about learning a new sport. This condition
sensory organs (e.g., three eyes or two noses), (c) having an
allowed us to present a condition that was similar to adaptation in
unusual configuration of the senses (e.g., eyes below the nose), (d)
novelty but that did not involve a foreign experience. In the control
having an exaggerated or unusual ability (e.g., eyes acting as laser
condition, participants received no priming materials, going
beams), and (e) having something that serves an atypical function
straight to the drawing task.
(e.g., ears for protection).
Following the priming phase, participants were then asked to
Reliability between the three coders was acceptable across the
complete the alien drawing task. Finally, participants were asked a
different types of creativity ratings: overall alien creativity ratings
series of follow-up questions regarding their