Cultural Dimensions of Corporate Governance Systems
by
Wolfgang Breuer* and Astrid Salzmann+
Abstract. In a series of cross‐country comparisons, we show that national culture is statistically signi‐
ficant in differentiating countries with different corporate governance systems. Using the Schwartz
cultural value model and data on corporate governance systems, we analyze the impact of national
culture on six dimensions of corporate governance. Countries that have stronger emphasis on the
dimensions of Embeddedness, Egalitarianism, and Harmony are more likely to have a bank‐based
system, countries with a stronger emphasis on Autonomy, Hierarchy, and Mastery tend to have mar‐
ket‐based systems. The findings suggest several implications for the ongoing debate on convergence
and divergence of corporate governance systems.
JEL classification code: A13, G10, G30, N20, Z13
Keywords: national culture, corporate governance
*Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Breuer, Lehrstuhl für Betriebswirtschaftslehre, insb. Betriebliche Finanzwirt‐
schaft, Templergraben 64, 52056 Aachen, Germany. Fon: +49 241 8093539, Fax: +49 241 8092163,
eMail: wolfgang.breuer@bfw.rwth‐aachen.de.
+Dipl.‐Math. oec. Astrid Salzmann, Lehrstuhl für Betriebswirtschaftslehre, insb. Betriebliche Finanz‐
wirtschaft, Templergraben 64, 52056 Aachen, Germany. Fon: +49 241 8093533, Fax: +49 241
8092163, eMail: astrid.salzmann@bfw.rwth‐aachen.de.
Financial support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) is gratefully acknowledged.
Cultural Dimensions of Corporate Governance Systems
Abstract. In a series of cross‐country comparisons, we show that national culture is statistically signi‐
ficant in differentiating countries with different corporate governance systems. Using the Schwartz
cultural value model and data on corporate governance systems, we analyze the impact of national
culture on six dimensions of corporate governance. Countries that have stronger emphasis on the
dimensions of Embeddedness, Egalitarianism, and Harmony are more likely to have a bank‐based
system, countries with a stronger emphasis on Autonomy, Hierarchy, and Mastery tend to have mar‐
ket‐based systems. The findings suggest several implications for the ongoing debate on convergence
and divergence of corporate governance systems.
JEL classification code: A13, G10, G30, N20, Z13
Keywords: national culture, corporate governance
1 Introduction
Increasing political and economical globalization has moved the design of financial systems to the
fore of scientific interest. Recent developments have been debated on controversially: Studies an‐
ticipating a convergence of financial systems towards a market‐based system are as numerous as
studies predicting the continuity of persisting systems. In consideration of these different scenarios,
an analysis of the determinants of this development is a matter of great concern (Guillén (2000)).
This study proposes culture as a key driver for the particular design of corporate governance systems
which constitute a vital component of a financial system. Basically, one can distinguish between
bank‐based and market‐based corporate governance systems, and their primal characteristics have
been looked at in a large number of studies (Allen and Gale (2000), Schmidt et al. (2002), Rajan and
Zingales (2003)). However, it is striking that almost all studies are confined to the mere description of
the different types of systems, but do not provide any explanations for their emergence. An excep‐
tion is La Porta et al. (1997, 1998, 1999) who verify in a number of studies that legal determinants
play a crucial role in the design of corporate governance systems. Nevertheless, several authors note
that this explanation comes up short (Mayer and Sussman (2001), Degeorge and Maug (2006)), and
thus this study opts for culture as a starting point, given that culture as the “collective programming
of the mind” can be attributed to a much more fundamental influence.
Research papers on different areas of business studies (for example in accounting and organizational
studies) have already documented the remarkable impact of culture and have shown that culture can
account for country‐specific differences. Up to now, studies in the field of finance are very rare, and
only narrowly conceptualised. Research in the field of corporate governance systems simply consists
of Licht (2001) and Licht et al. (2005). With reference to the Schwartz cultural value model, Licht
(2001) examines the relationship between culture and corporate governance verbally and develops
several hypotheses concerning corporate control, investors’ objectives, protection of minority share‐
1
holders, corporate boards, and hostile takeovers. Licht et al. (2005) take on the protection of minor‐
ity shareholders again and find empirical support for the impact of culture.
The present study ties in with this state of knowledge. With reference to the Schwartz cultural value
model we analyze the impact of culture on the development of corporate governance systems. Our
research focuses on corporate control, investors’ objectives, ownership structure, protection of mi‐
nority shareholders, corporate boards, and hostile takeovers as main attributes of corporate govern‐
ance systems, and their developments in relation to the Schwartz cultural dimensions of Embedded‐
ness, Autonomy, Hierarchy, Egalitarianism, Mastery, and Harmony. As the main contribution of this
paper, it is shown that countries with a strong emphasis on the cultural dimensions of Embedded‐
ness, Egalitarianism, and Harmony tend to have a bank‐based corporate governance system, whereas
countries with a strong emphasis on the cultural dimensions of Autonomy, Hierarchy, and Mastery
tend towards a market‐based system.
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 introduces the theoretical background,
and develops the research hypotheses. Section 3 presents the dataset. Section 4 constitutes the em‐
pirical analysis and Section 5 discusses the results. Section 6 concludes.
2 Theoretical Background
The following part deals with the two basic concepts of this study: national culture and corporate
governance. After a short introduction to the notion of culture we continue with an outline of the
Schwartz model. Thereafter, we discuss basic literature on corporate governance and relate it to
cultural dimensions. The analysis culminates in the derivation of six hypotheses concerning the main
characteristics of corporate governance.
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2.1 The concept of national culture
Culture is a very vague concept with manifold definitions (Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952)). A very
common definition was given by the Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede (1984, p. 82):
„Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one
group or society from those of another. Culture consists of the patterns of thinking that par‐
ents transfer to their children, teachers to their students, friends to their friends, leaders to
their followers, and followers to their leaders. Culture is reflected in the meanings people at‐
tach to various aspects of life; their way of looking at the world and their role in it; in their
values, that is, in what they consider as ‘good’ and ‘evil’; in their collective beliefs, what they
consider as ‘true’ and as ‘false’; in their artistic expressions, what they consider as ‘beautiful’
and as ‘ugly’. “
Many scientists developed different frameworks to describe cultural paradigms. Normally, such a
framework consists of several cultural dimensions which can be used to characterize and categorize
countries and cultures, respectively. For each dimension, the two extreme values are specified and
the particular countries/cultures are arranged in between.
The study at hand is based on the Schwartz (1994) cultural theory. Although Hofstede’s framework
has been commonly accepted as standard for the description of cultural differences, Schwartz’s
model overcomes some difficulties of Hofstede’s approach (Ng et al. (2007)). After having studied the
underlying cultural value concept comprehensively, Schwartz (1994, 1999) conducted his studies in
the years of 1988 to 1992 and took samples from 38 countries in 30 different languages. Since then
the surveys have been continued and up to now data on cultural dimensions is available for 73 coun‐
tries.
The Schwartz cultural model specifies three bipolar dimensions that represent alternative solutions
to three basic problems that confront all societies: Embeddedness versus Autonomy, Hierarchy ver‐
sus Egalitarianism, and Mastery versus Harmony. An emphasis on the cultural type at one pole of a
dimension typically accompanies a de‐emphasis on the polar type. Altogether, the model encom‐
passes seven cultural dimensions, as the dimension of Autonomy divides into Affective and Intellec‐
3
tual Autonomy. These dimensions were constructed out of 45 basic value types, as is indicated in
Table 1 exemplarily. In the following, with respect to our hypotheses we will not distinguish between
the two variants of Autonomy.
>>> Insert Table 1 about here <<<
The comprehensive surveys asking test persons for the importance of the particular value types as
„Guiding Principles in Her/His Life“ showed the existence of distinct cultural regions, which assign
similar weights to the different value types and corresponding cultural dimensions. The following
table shows a brief summary of these results.
>>> Insert Table 2 about here <<<
2.2 National culture and corporate governance
Table 2 provides the basis for analyzing the impact of the particular cultural dimensions on corporate
governance systems. We study corporate control, investors’ objectives, ownership structure, protec‐
tion of minority shareholders, corporate boards, and hostile takeovers as main characteristics of cor‐
porate governance systems (Guillén (2000)). In the course of this study, we refer to them as dimen‐
sions of corporate governance, in analogy to the dimensions of national culture. The extreme values
of the two polar corporate governance systems, the bank‐based system and the market‐based sys‐
tem, are presented in Table 3. In the following, we examine the relationship between culture and
corporate governance and summarize them in hypotheses, analogously to the proceedings in Licht
(2001) and Licht et al. (2005).
>>> Insert Table 3 about here <<<
4
Corporate control
In the bank‐based corporate governance system control is predominantly exercised by bank relation‐
ships and miscellaneous stakeholders, and thus the system is referred to as an insider system. Ac‐
cording to Schmidt et al. (2001), there exist numerous insiders with special information and influence
capabilities. Tyrell and Schmidt (2001) note that a bank‐based system relies on stability, as it is
grounded on implicit contracts with a long‐term orientation. Pursuant Franks and Mayer (2001), the
existence of private information involves the risk of exploiting information for private benefits. Fur‐
thermore, Franks and Mayer (1995) observe that ownership patterns reflect a tradeoff of risk and
control, where the bank‐based system relies on high control and low risk.
In the market‐based corporate governance system, control is exercised via market mechanisms, and
thus the system is called an outsider system. For Schmidt et al. (2001), these mechanisms consist
mainly of proxy votes, mergers, and acquisitions. In compliance with Tyrell and Schmidt (2001), the
market‐based system is based on flexibility; relationships are governed by explicit contracts and are
generally short‐term. However, the availability of public information leads to free‐rider problems.
This is again demonstrated in the analysis of ownership patterns by Franks and Mayer (1995), who
detect high risk and low control in the market‐based system.
Countries with a strong emphasis on the cultural dimensions of Embeddedness and Harmony should
tend to have a bank‐based corporate governance system. Embeddedness coincides with values like
“social order”, “respect for tradition”, and “honoring of parents/elders”, which relates to the exis‐
tence of privileged insiders. The dimension of Harmony relies on values like “a world in peace” and
”unity with nature”, which reflects the pronounced stability orientation of the system. A strong em‐
phasis on the cultural dimensions of Hierarchy and Autonomy militates in favor of the market‐based
corporate governance system. Hierarchy emphasizes values like “social power” and “authority”, and
corresponds to external governance via market mechanisms. Autonomy draws on values like “free‐
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dom” and “creativity”, which is reflected in the flexibility of the market based system. Countries with
a low emphasis on the mentioned cultural dimensions should demonstrate reverse characteristics.
Thus, the hypothesis to be tested is:
H1: In countries with
a) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Embeddedness,
b) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Harmony,
c) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Hierarchy,
d) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Autonomy,
corporate control is exercised by bank relationships and various stakeholders (insider system),
in countries with
a) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Embeddedness,
b) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Harmony,
c) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Hierarchy,
d) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Autonomy,
corporate control is exercised externally via market mechanisms (outsider system).
Investors’ objectives
In the bank‐based corporate governance system, investors do not pursue immediate financial objec‐
tives, and the system is ascribed as control‐based. Hackethal and Schmidt (2000) point out that prior‐
ity is given to strategic interests, which is the case for the owner family or long‐term business part‐
ners. According to Aguilera and Jackson (2003), commitment is very high and control is exercised
directly through voice.
In the market‐based corporate governance system, investors’ objectives are solely financial, and the
system is referred to as liquidity‐based. Investments are motivated by the prospect of a positive re‐
turn, and thus Hackethal and Schmidt (2000) remark that the maximization of the market value of a
share and its dividend are of main interest. Following Aguilera and Jackson (2003), liquid sharehold‐
ers prefer the ability to exit to the control through voice.
Countries with a strong emphasis on the cultural dimension of Egalitarianism and Mastery should
tend towards a bank‐based corporate governance system. Egalitarianism is produced by the value
“responsibility”, and Mastery by “choosing own goals”, which supports the idea of direct influence to
6
secure strategic objectives. A strong emphasis on the cultural dimensions of Hierarchy suits a market‐
based corporate governance system. Hierarchy rests on “authority” and “influence”, which correlates
with liquidity‐orientation and the ability to exit. Again, countries with a low emphasis on the ad‐
dressed cultural dimensions should exhibit characteristics of the opposite system. The hypothesis to
be verified is:
H2: In countries with
a) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Egalitarianism,
b) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Mastery,
c) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Hierarchy,
investors pursue strategic objectives (control orientation), in countries with
a) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Egalitarianism,
b) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Mastery,
c) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Hierarchy,
investors pursue financial objectives (liquidity orientation).
Ownership structure
In the bank‐based corporate governance system, ownership structures are rather complex and char‐
acterized by cross‐shareholdings. The exertion of control through voice results in increasing owner‐
ship concentration (Aguilera and Jackson (2003)). Franks and Mayer (1995) remark that bank‐based
systems have small quoted sectors, and companies typically have at least one major “strategic”
shareholder owning more than 25 percent of the equity.
On the other hand, ownership structures of the market‐based corporate governance system are
transparent and not very complex. Aguilera and Jackson (2003) argue that high liquidity and the abil‐
ity to exit favor fragmented ownership. Franks and Mayer (1995) also confirm the existence of large
quoted sectors in the market‐based system with stocks being widely held by institutional/individual
shareholders without strategic interests.
A strong emphasis on the cultural dimensions of Harmony matches a bank‐based corporate govern‐
ance system, as values like “a world in peace” and “unity with nature” are in line with complex own‐
7
ership structures, where many interests are reconcilated. Countries with a strong emphasis on the
cultural dimensions of Egalitarianism, Mastery, and Autonomy should tend towards a market‐based
corporate governance system. Egalitarianism draws on values like “social justice” and “equality“ and
thus harmonizes with dispersed ownership, where all shareholders have equal rights. “Independ‐
ence”, which corresponds to the dimension of Mastery, and “freedom”, which corresponds to the
dimension of Autonomy, are again in accordance with the liquidity orientation, which is the case for
institutional/individual shareholders. This yields the following hypothesis:
H3: In countries with
a) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Harmony,
b) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Egalitarianism,
c) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Mastery,
d) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Autonomy,
ownership structures are rather complex and there is a strong incidence of cross‐
shareholdings, in countries with
a) low emphasis on the cultural dimension of Harmony,
b) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Egalitarianism,
c) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Mastery,
d) high emphasis on the cultural dimension of Autonomy,
ownership structures are transparent and not very complex.
Protection of minority shareholders
Corresponding to the ownership structure, protection of minority shareholders is very weak in the
bank‐based corporate governance system. Due to the superiority of shareholders with large stakes,
interests of minority shareholders are hardly considered (Berkovitch and Israel (1998)).
However, the protection of minority shareholders is very strong in the market‐based corporate gov‐
ernance system. Despite moderate influence capabilities, property rights predominantly protect in‐
stitutional/individual shareholders (Aguilera and Jackson (2003)).
The values of the cultural dimensions should behave similarly to the ones above. A strong emphasis
on the cultural dimension of Harmony is, with reference to the values “a world in peace” and “unity
with nature”, again in line with the bank‐based corporate governance system, where the situation is
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