DIETARY SPICES IN HEALTH AND DISEASES

1
I 0
n 6
d i a K
n o
J c
h
P h a
y rs i o l P h a r m a c o l 2 0 0 8 ; 5 2 ( 2 ) : 1 0 6 – 1 2 2
I n d i a n J P h y s i o l P h a r m a c o l 2 0 0 8 ; 5 2 ( 2 )
R E V I E W A R T I C L E
D I E T A R Y S P I C E S I N H E A L T H A N D D I S E A S E S : I
K . P . K O C H H A R
D e p a r t m e n t o f P h y s i o l o g y ,
All India Institute of Medical Sciences,
New Delhi – 110 029
( R e c e i v e d o n M a r c h 1 , 2 0 0 8 )
Abstract : Spices are heterogeneous collections of a wide variety of volatile
a n d n o n - v o l a t i l e s t a p l e d i e t a r y a d d i t i v e s . I n d i a w i t h i t s w i d e c l i m a t i c
c o n d i t i o n s a n d t o p o g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e s n a t u r a l l y p o s s e s s e s w i d e v a r i e t y o f
medicinal flora. Spices have a diverse array of natural phytochemicals that
have complementary and overlapping actions, including antioxidant effects,
m o d u l a t i o n o f d e t o x i f i c a t i o n e n z y m e s , s t i m u l a t i o n o f i m m u n e s y s t e m ,
r e d u c t i o n o f i n f l a m m a t i o n , m o d u l a t i o n o f s t e r o i d m e t a b o l i s m a n d
antibacterial and antiviral effects. In the present essay, various studies on
effects of different well characterized spices on molecular, cellular, autocrine,
p a r a c r i n e a n d e n d o c r i n e m e c h a n i s m s a n d t h e i r r o l e i n n e u r o m o d u l a t i o n ,
i m m u n o m o d u l a t i o n , a n t i i n f l a m m a t o r y , a n t i o x i d a n t , a n t i - c a r c i n o g e n i c ,
a n t i m u t a g e n i c a n d p s y c h o a c t i v e p h e n o m e n a h a v e b e e n r e v i e w e d .
K e y w o r d s :
s p i c e s
c o n d i m e n t s
h e r b s
n u t r a c e u t i c a l s
c h e m o p r e v e n t i o n
a n t i o x i d a n t
p h y t o c h e m i c a l s
Aristotle had stated in ‘Metaphysics’ that
For centuries the inherent value as well
“the search for truth is in one way hard and
a s p o t e n t i a l t o x i c i t y o f p h y t o c h e m i c a l s t o
in another easy for no one can master it fully
h u m a n h e a l t h h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d ( 2 – 4 ) .
nor miss it totally but each one of us adds
P l a n t s a r e n a t u r a l a n d t r a d i t i o n a l s o u r c e s
a little to the knowledge of nature and from
of medication in large parts of world; herbs,
t h e f a c t s a s s e m b l e d t h e r e a r i s e s a c e r t a i n
condiments and spices have been used since
g r a n d e u r ” . S t u d y o f s p i c e s i s a s g o o d
a n c i e n t t i m e s b y p h y s i c i a n s a n d l a y m e n t o
a n e x a m p l e a s a n y t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e
treat a great variety of human diseases, yet
c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y o f s c i e n c e a n d t r a d i t i o n .
many of them need to pass tests of modern,
Spices are a diverse group of a wide variety
controlled, clinical experimentation (5, 6). A
of staple dietary additives consumed all over
wide variety of herbs and spices singly and
the world, significantly more so in tropical,
i n m i x t u r e s h a v e b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y
o r i e n t a l , H i s p a n i c a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n
i n v e s t i g a t e d i n b a s i c b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s t o
cuisines (1).
evaluate their chief as well as supplementary,

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I n d i a n J P h y s i o l P h a r m a c o l 2 0 0 8 ; 5 2 ( 2 )
D i e t a r y S p i c e s i n H e a l t h a n d D i s e a s e s
1 0 7
c o m p l e m e n t a r y a n d s y n e r g i s t i c a c t i o n s i n
CH
health and diseases (7–11). Albeit spices are
3
CH
CH
3
3
3
c o n s u m e d i n r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l a m o u n t s , t h e y
O
are nevertheless consumed by large sections
CH
CHO
O
3
O
of population globally (12–14).
O
C
CH
C
CH
CH
CH
CH
2
CH
3
3
CH
CH
3
3
3
3
3
3
CH
CH
3
3
I n t h e p r e s e n t r e v i e w , a n a t t e m p t h a s
citr
t a
r l
ca
c rv
a on
rv
e
cineole
amyl
y acetate
(lem
l
on)
(car
c away s
y eeds)
(=eucalyp
y to
p l)
(b
( ananas)
b e e n m a d e t o c o l l a t e c u r r e n t p h y s i o l o g i c a l
(c
( amphorous)
a n d n u t r a c e u t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s o f c h e m i c a l s
CH
CH
3
3
3
CH
CH
3
3
from spices that we ingest regularly without
OH
much knowledge about them. In the process,
CH3
CH3
w e s h a l l h i g h l i g h t s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e ,
CH OH
2
O
CH3
e x p e r i m e n t a l t r i a l s a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
3
CH
t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h i s a r e a
CH
3
3
2
3
3
bor
o neol
lim
i onene
gera
r niol
5-meth
e yl
y -
l
o f s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . W e a n t i c i p a t e
(pe
p ppery)
(lem
l
on)
(ros
(ro e
s lilk
i e)
e
3-h
- eptanone
(frui
(fru t
i y)
y
t h a t t h i s s h a l l p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r a f u l l -
CHO
CH3
s c a l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c
CH3
p o t e n t i a l o f t h e s e s t a p l e d i e t a r y a d d i t i v e s
(15, 16).
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
3
CH
CH
3
CH
General effects of flavour and aroma
CH
3
CH
3
3
3
3
3
3
cum
u inaldehyde
y

?-

?
phella
ndrene ?-pinen

?
e



cinn
i
am
a aldehyde
y

cuminaldehyde
?-
phellandrene

(ca
c ra
r wa
w y odor
y
)
(fe
f nnel)
(tur
t pentine)
(cin
c nam
na on)
(caraway odor)
(fennel)
on)
In the production of gastronomic delight,
g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e
F i g . 1 :
C o n s t i t u e n t s o f e s s e n t i a l o i l s .
o r g a n o l e p t i c q u a n t i t y o f f o o d . T h e h u m a n
F o r d e t a i l s s e e M a x ( 1 7 ) .
s e n s o r y a p p a r a t u s i s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y
d i s c r i m i n a t i n g i n a b i l i t y , a n d t h e f o o d
S p i c e s a n d f l a v o r i n g a g e n t s c o n t a i n
i n d u s t r y h a s e v o l v e d a h i g h l y e l a b o r a t e
volatile essential oils and hydrocarbons which
l a n g u a g e t o d e s c r i b e t h e m o s t s u i t a b l e y e t
s t i m u l a t e g l a n d u l a r s e c r e t i o n a n d m a y h a v e
critical differences in flavour (17). Several
a w e a k a c t i o n o n t h e n e r v o u s s y s t e m . T h e
e m p i r i c a l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l o b s e r v a t i o n s d o
high value that most societies place on warm
s u g g e s t t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f s p i c e s e x t e n d
f o o d a s a c a t a l y s t o f s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e
beyond taste and flavour (18–20). Taste is
possibly evolved from intractable relationship
a c t u a l l y a m i x t u r e o f t a s t e a n d s m e l l , a n d
between olfaction and the neurochemistry of
a l s o i n c a s e o f s u b s t a n c e s s u c h a s c h i l l i
m o o d . W h i l e h u m a n s l i k e o t h e r m a m m a l s
pungency and pain (17). The human nose can
a r e c a p a b l e o f s u r v i v i n g o n r a w m e a t a n d
distinguish more than 10,000 odours with the
uncooked plants, so much effort is put into
help of olfactory chemorecpors belonging to
the biologically almost valueless activity of
the large family of G-protein linked receptors
c o o k i n g i s t h a t o d o u r i s m a x i m i z e d i n h o t
(21, 22). Slight variations in structure may
f o o d a n d h e d o n i c a s p e c t s o f o d o u r e n h a n c e
m a k e f o r m a r k e d d i f f e r e n c e i n o l f a c t o r y
the social values of eating. Olfaction is the
response (Fig. 1) (17).
o l d e s t p h y l o g e n e t i c s e n s e k e e p i n g i n v i e w

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1 0 8
K o c h h a r
I n d i a n J P h y s i o l P h a r m a c o l 2 0 0 8 ; 5 2 ( 2 )
that the brain can be conceived of as being
like capsaicin, piperine, chavicene, saponins
a functionally specialized piece of gut tissue
l i k e t r i g n o l l e n i n e i m p a r t i n g p u n g e n t a n d
evolved at the consuming end of the gut as
b i t t e r t a s t e r e s p e c t i v e l y t o p e p p e r s a n d
a t o o l f o r r e c o g n i z i n g f o o d ( 2 2 ) . O d o r i s
f e n u g r e e k ( 1 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 3 4 ) . O c c a s s i o n a l l y a
m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t a s t e b e c a u s e i t i s
s t r o n g c o l o r i n g m a t t e r l i k e c u r c u m i n ,
m o r e s e n s i t i v e , o p e r a t e s o v e r a g r e a t e r
c a r o t e n e , s a f f r o l e , c r o c i n a n d p i c r o c i n i s
d i s t a n c e a n d t h e r e i s h i g h s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o
present as in turmeric, chillies and saffron.
o d o r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g . T h e e x c i t a t o r y a m i n o
C o n d i m e n t s u s e d a s s o u r i n g a g e n t s c a r r y
a c i d r e c e p t o r a g o n i s t s l i k e g l u t a m a t e ,
v a r i o u s a c i d s . T a m a r i n d h a s t a r t a r i c a c i d ,
t r i c h o c l o m a t e a n d i b o t e n a t e a r e a l l
and kokam hydroxyl citric acid, mangopowder
p o t e n t f l a v o u r e n h a n c e r s , e s p e c i a l l y i n
malic acid, pomegranate seeds oxalic acid and
t r a d i t i o n a l o r i e n t a l c o o k i n g ( 2 3 , 2 4 ) . A l l
caper buds rutic acid (1, 13, 14, 34). Table I
receptors physiologically are chemorecepors,
shows some common spices with their chief
r e s p o n d i n g t o e i t h e r e x o g e n o u s o r
c o n s t i t u e n t s t h a t c o n f e r o n t h e m a
e n d o g e n o u s c h e m i c a l s ( 2 5 ) . M a n y s p i c y
d i s t i n c t i v e f l a v o u r , t a s t e a n d r e s u l t i n g
c o m p o u n d s i n d e e d e x h i b i t d e s e n s i t i z a t i o n
p h y s i o l o g i c a l a c t i o n s .
w h i c h h a s i m p o r t a n t n e u r o c h e m i c a l
implications (26, 27).
Nutritive value of spices
P h y s i o l o g i c a l c h e m i s t r y o f s p i c e s a n d s p i c e
S i n c e s p i c e s , c o n d i m e n t s a n d h e r b s a r e
m e t a b o l i t e s
consumed in very small quantities every day,
t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n b y w a y o f m a c r o e l e m e n t s
Many spice components are terpenes and
o f n u t r i t i o n n a m e l y c a r b o h y d r a t e s , p r o t e i n s
o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s o f e s s e n t i a l o i l s ( F i g . 1 )
and fats cannot obviously be of significance.
T e r p e n e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s e c r e t o r y
O c c a s s i o n a l l y h o w e v e r e x c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h
s t r u c t u r e s i n p l a n t s s u c h a s o i l c e l l s , r e s i n
levels of a mineral or a vitamin could have
d u c t s , h a i r - l i k e t r i c h o m e s o r g l a n d u l a r
m i c r o n u t r i t i v e v a l u e . T h e c o r e o f c l a s s i c a l
e p i d e r m i s . T h e y i n h i b i t b a c t e r i a l a n d
n u t r i t i o n r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n w i t n e s s i n g a
f u n g a l g r o w t h ( 2 8 – 3 0 ) a n d g e r m i n a t i o n o f
p a r a d i g m s h i f t i n t h e l a s t t w o d e c a d e s
competitors (7, 31, 32). A critical prediction
where seemingly biologically inert substances
of the antimicrobial hypothesis is that spice
h a v e a p p a r e n t l y d e m o n s t r a t e d r a t h e r
use yields a health benefit; cleansing food of
p r o f o u n d e f f e c t s i n h e a l t h a n d d i s e a s e s .
p a r a s i t e s a n d p a t h o g e n s b e f o r e i t i s e a t e n .
T h e s e n e w n u t r i e n t s , i n c l u d i n g i n
I n s u p p o r t m o s t s p i c e s h a v e a n t i m i c r o b i a l
l a r g e m e a s u r e , d i e t a r y s p i c e s a r e b e i n g
properties and their use is greatest in tropics
i d e n t i f i e d w h i c h m a i n t a i n h u m a n h e a l t h b y
w h e r e t h e d i v e r s i t y a n d g r o w t h r a t e s o f
t h e i r a n t i o x i d a t i v e , c h e m o p r e v e n t i v e ,
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s a r e h i g h e s t ( 3 3 ) . T h e
a n t i m u t a g e n i c , a n t i i n f l a m m a t o r y , i m m u n e
f r a g r a n t , a r o m a t i c a n d p u n g e n t c h a r a c t e r i s
m o d u l a t o r y e f f e c t s o n c e l l s a n d a w i d e
c a u s e d b y e s s e n t i a l o i l s i n c l u d i n g t e r p e n e s ,
r a n g i n g a r r a y o f p u t a t i v e b e n e f i c i a l
s e s q u i t e r p e n e s , p i n e n e s , a l c o h o l s , e s t e r s ,
e f f e c t s o n h u m a n h e a l t h v i a a c t i o n o n
k e t o n e s a n d a l d e h y d e s . C e r t a i n s p i c e s h a v e
g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l , c a r d i o v a s c u l a r , r e s p i r a t o r y ,
c o m p o n e n t s o t h e r t h a n v o l a t i l e s , a l k a l o i d s
m e t a b o l i c , r e p r o d u c t i v e , n e u r a l a n d o t h e r

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I n d i a n J P h y s i o l P h a r m a c o l 2 0 0 8 ; 5 2 ( 2 )
D i e t a r y S p i c e s i n H e a l t h a n d D i s e a s e s
1 0 9
T A B L E I :
C h i e f c o n s t i t u e n t s o f c o m m o n s p i c e s .
s y s t e m s ( 7 , 3 5 – 4 1 ) . I n f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s ,
s o m e o f t h e s e a c t i o n s s h a l l b e d i s c u s s e d .
N a m e
C h i e f C o n s t i t u e n t s
P i m e n t o
E u g e n o l
C h e m o p r e v e n t i v e e f f e c t
A n i s e e d
A n e t h o l e
A r e c a n u t
C a t e c h i n , A r e c o l i n
A s a f o e t i d a
Mixed Allyl sulphides
Chemoprevention is defined as nutritional
B a y L e a f
L i n a l o o l , M e t h y l c i n n a m a t e
B e t e l
E u g e n o l
o r p h a r m a c e u t i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s d e s i g n e d t o
B i s h o p ’ s w e e d
T h y m o l
p r e v e n t o r d e l a y c e l l u l a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
C a p e r
R u t i c a c i d
Based on published preclinical studies on a
C a r a w a y
C a r v o n e
C a r d a m o m
C i n e o l , B o r n e o l , C a m p h o r
n u m b e r o f n e w c o m p o u n d s d e r i v e d f r o m
C e l e r y
L i m o n e n e
citrus products and Asian foods and spices,
C h i l l i e s a n d c a p s i c u m
C a p s a i c i n
C h i l l i e s p a p r i k a o r
i t a p p e a r s t h a t c e r t a i n d i e t a r y f l a v i n e s a n d
S p a n i s h p i m e n t o
C a p s a i c i n
f l a v o n e s t a r g e t c e l l s u r f a c e s i g n a l
C i n n a m o n b a r k
C i n n a m a l d e h y d e
C i n n a m o n l e a v e s
E u g e n o l
t r a n s d u c t i o n e n z y m e s , s u c h a s p r o t e i n
C l o v e
E u g e n o l
tyrosine and focal adhesion kinases, and the
C o r i a n d e r l e a f
D e c y l a d e h y d e
C o r i a n d e r s e e d s
D e c y l a d e h y d e
p r o c e s s e s o f a n g i o g e n e s i s a n d t h u s a p p e a r
C u m i n , w h i t e
C i n n a m a l d e h y d e
t o b e p r o m i s i n g c a n d i d a t e s a s a n t i c a n c e r
C u m i n , b l a c k
C a r v o n e , L i m o n e n e n e
C u r r y l e a f
P i n e n e ; d i p e n t e n e
agents (7, 35–44). Cancer chemoprevention
Dill
D i l l e p h o l e , C a r v o n e ,
by phytochemicals obtained from vegetables,
P h e l l a n d r e n e
f r u i t s , s p i c e s , t e a s , h e r b s a n d m e d i c i n a l
F e n n e l
A n e t h o l e , b i t t e r a l k a l o i d ,
T r i g o n e l l i n e , N i a c i n
p l a n t s s u c h a s c a r o t e n o i d s , p h e n o l i c
G a r l i c
D i l a l k y l a n d t r i s u l p h i d e s ,
compounds and terpenoids have been proven
Allicin
G i n g e r
C a m p h e n e , Z i n g i b e r e n e ,
t o s u p p r e s s e x p e r i m e n t a l c a r c i n o g e n e s i s i n
K o k a m
H y d r o x y c i t r i c a c i d
various organs (45–48). Phytochemicals may
M a c e
P i n e n e , c a m p h e n e
M a n g o , g r e e n
Malic acid
also be useful to develop “designer foods” or
M a n g o g i n g e r
O c i m e n e , M y c r e n e , L i m o n e n e
“functional foods” for cancer prevention. In
M a r j o r u m
M e n t h o l , M e n t h y l a c e t a t e ,
M e n t h o n e
p r o t o t y p e e x p e r i m e n t s , e x p r e s s i o n o f g e n e s
M u s t a r d
Thioglucosides, Isothicoyanates
f o r s y n t h e s i s o f p h y t o c h e m i c a l s , s u c h a s
N u t m e g
M y r i s t i c i n , G e r a n i o l , P i n e n e ,
phytoene and limonene, has been successful
C a m p h e n e
O n i o n
A l k y l D i s u l p h i d e
in cultured animal cells (49).
O r e g a n u m
T h y m o l , C a r v a c r o l , T e r p e n e s
P a r s l e y
A p i o l e , A l p h a - p i n e n e
P e p p e r , b l a c k
Menthol, Limonene, Menthone
N a t u r a l a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y c o m p o u n d s
P o m e g r e n a t e
Oxalic acid
are plentifuly present in herbs, and are found
P o p p y
O p i o i d s
S a f f r o n
P i c r o c r o c i n
i n g r e e n t e a , t h e s p i c e s l i k e t u r m e r i c a n d
S a g e
T h u j o n e , L i n e l y l A c e t a t e ,
r o s e m a r y . B e c a u s e t h e u s e o f n o n s t e r o i d a l
C a m p h o l , T a n n i n , P i c r o s a l v i n
S p e a r m i n t
C a r v o n e , T e r p e n e s
a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y d r u g s ( N S A I D ) i s
T a m a r i n d
T a r t a r i c A c i d , G l u c o s e ,
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r e d u c e d r i s k f o r s e v e r a l
F r u c t o s e , P e c t i n
c a n c e r s , i t i s a t l e a s t p l a u s i b l e t h a t n a t u r a l
T a r r a g o n o r E s t r e g o n
C h a v i c o l , P h e l l a n d r e n e ,
O c i m e n e
NSAID should be explored for possible use
T h y m e
T h y m i o l
as cancer preventives (44, 45). A recent study
T u r m e r i c
C u r c u m i n , Z i n g i b e r e n e ,
S e s q u e t e r p e n e s , B o r n e o l
c o n d u c t e d t o d e t e r m i n e s a l i c y l a t e c o n t e n t
V a n i l l a
M e t h y l v a n i l l i n
o f a v a r i e t y o f c o m m a n l y u s e d s p i c e s

---

1 1 0
K o c h h a r
I n d i a n J P h y s i o l P h a r m a c o l 2 0 0 8 ; 5 2 ( 2 )
demonstrated good bioavailability of salicylic
r e l a t e d b e t a k e t o n e a n a l o g u e h a s b e e n
acid levels in them (50, 51).
r e p o r t e d t o e x h i b i t a r e m a r k a b l e i n h i b i t o r y
e f f e c t o n 7 , 1 2 - d i m e t h y l b e n z a n t h r a c e n e
T h e r e s u l t s o f e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l d a t a a n d
(DMBA) induced mammary tumorigengenesis
some laboratory animal studies indicate that
in Sencar mice (52). DBM inhibited DMBA
c e r t a i n n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g a n d s y n t h e t i c
metabolism and the formation of DMBA-DNA
s p i c e c o m p o n e n t s a r e a b l e t o b l o c k t h e
adducts in a dose-dependent manner. In vitro
c a r c i n o g e n i c p r o c e s s a n d i n h i b i t t h e
DBM showed weak estrogen receptor binding
development of certain cancers (also see Fig.
affinity and in vivo feeding of 1% DBM in
2 ) . D i b e n z o y l m e t h a n e ( D B M ) , a c u r c u m i n -
t h e d i e t o f i m m a t u r e S e n c a r m i c e f o r 4 – 5
weeks decreased the uterine and parametrial
Immunosuppressive
v
e
f a t p a d w e i g h t s , a n d l o w e r e d t h e s e r u m
factors (7)
7
Can
a c
n e
c r cel
r
l
e s t r o g e n a n d t r i g l y c e r i d e l e v e l s ( 5 3 ) .
Invasi
n
on an
n
d
metastasis (6)
6
6-methylsulfinylhexylisothiocyanate (MS-
Nucleus
An
A giogenesis
I T C ) i s o l a t e d f r o m J a p a n e s e d o m e s t i c
(5)
(5
h o r s e r a d i s h w a s a b i ( W a s a