DO HIGH JOB DEMANDS INCREASE INTRINSIC MOTIVATION OR FATIGUE OR BOTH ? THE ROLE OF JOB CONTROL AND JOB SOCIAL SUPPORT

Academy of Management Journal
2003, Vol. 46, No. 3, 339–348.
DO HIGH JOB DEMANDS INCREASE INTRINSIC MOTIVATION OR
FATIGUE OR BOTH? THE ROLE OF JOB CONTROL AND
JOB SOCIAL SUPPORT
NICO W. VAN YPEREN
MARIE¨T HAGEDOORN
University of Groningen
In this study, we used Karasek’s demand-control-support model to determine whether
either job control or job social support or both can reduce signs of fatigue and
simultaneously enhance intrinsic motivation among employees facing high job de-
mands. Survey data on 555 nurses suggest that job control in particular reduces fatigue
in highly demanding jobs, whereas high levels of instrumental support produce ele-
vated levels of intrinsic motivation, regardless of the level of job control and job
demands.
In order to become successful or even more suc-
respect to work motivation. Moreover, the role of
cessful, today’s work organizations need to maxi-
job social support in the interaction between de-
mize the use of their employees’ actual and poten-
mands and control has drawn little empirical atten-
tial skills. More than ever before, organizations in
tion as far as job strain is concerned, and no empir-
both the private and public sector are introducing
ical or theoretical attention with regard to intrinsic
new forms of work and organizational design and
motivation (cf. Parker & Sprigg, 1999; Van der Doef
management, such as total quality management,
& Maes, 1999). The present study contributes sub-
lean production, and empowerment (Parker & Wall,
stantially to management theory and empirical
1998). These initiatives may enhance intrinsic mo-
knowledge by focusing on intrinsic work motiva-
tivation and inspire employees to learn and de-
tion and, more specifically, by examining the inter-
velop the skills they need to meet increasing job
action between job demands, job control, and job
demands, but simultaneously the initiatives may
social support on fatigue and intrinsic motivation
raise levels of job strain and other negative health-
simultaneously.
related outcomes among employees, generating sig-
nificant costs in terms of sickness, lost time, and
low productivity (Parker & Sprigg, 1999; Theorell &
THEORY AND HYPOTHESES
Karasek, 1996). Building on the demand-control-
Karasek’s Initial Model: The Demand-
support model (DCS model) developed by Karasek
Control Model
and his associates (Karasek, 1979; Karasek & Theo-
rell, 1990), the present study examines job condi-
The central contention expressed in the demand-
tions that minimize job strain and maximize intrin-
control model is that it is not high demands per se,
sic motivation in highly demanding jobs. The
but high demands in combination with a lack of
interaction between job demands and control has
control on the job, that are associated with high job
been studied frequently with respect to job strain
strain. Karasek (1979) argued that in high-strain
(e.g., Ganster & Fusilier, 1989; Karasek, 1979;
jobs— high-demand, low-control jobs—the high de-
Schaubroeck & Merritt, 1997; Theorell & Karasek,
mands create arousal that cannot be transformed
1996; Wall, Jackson, Mullarkey, & Parker, 1996;
into action because employees lack control on the
Xie, 1996), but has been largely neglected with
job. Instead, the arousal associated with high job
demands will be directed internally with deleteri-
ous consequences, including fatigue and exhaus-
This work was prepared while Nico W. Van Yperen
tion. The results of recent studies using measures
was a visiting scholar at the Management Department of
that focus on control itself rather than on a wide
the Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania. He
range of job properties, such as Karasek’s (1979)
thanks the members of the Wharton School and his host,
decision latitude, have supported the moderating
Karen A. Jehn, in particular, for their hospitality and
effect of job control on the association between
support. The authors also thank Claudy Pastoor and Hes-
ter Kooi for their help in data collection, and Onne Jans-
high job demands and negative health-related out-
sen, Evert van de Vliert, and the three anonymous re-
comes (e.g., Marshall, Barnett, & Sayer, 1997; Van
viewers for their helpful comments on drafts.
Yperen & Snijders, 2000; Wall et al., 1996).
339

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Academy of Management Journal
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In addition, Karasek (1979) suggested that in ac-
In the present study, we assumed that social sup-
tive jobs— high-demand, high-control jobs—new
port buffers negative health-related outcomes only
behavior patterns will develop both on and off the
when it is well-matched with the stressful event in
job. Hence, we hypothesized that as job demands
question (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Specifically, in the
increase, enhancing job control may not only de-
case of high job demands, only instrumental sup-
crease strain but may also increase employees’ in-
port, defined as help from others for getting the job
trinsic work motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the
done when things get tough, will be effective in
motivation to perform an activity for itself, in order
preventing or reducing detrimental effects.
to experience the pleasure and satisfaction inherent
in the activity (Deci, Connell, & Ryan, 1989; Valle-
rand, 1997). Autonomy has been identified as a
Hypotheses
crucial determinant of intrinsic motivation (e.g.,
Increasing job demands obviously produce fa-
Hackman & Oldham, 1980). For example, Richer
tigue and the need to recover (Van Yperen & Jans-
and Vallerand (1995) demonstrated that a control-
sen, 2002). However, in contrast to employees in
ling supervisory style, whether punitive or nonpu-
active jobs, employees who find themselves in
nitive, had a detrimental effect on subordinates’
high-strain jobs lack the job control that might al-
intrinsic motivation. Providing employees with au-
low them to recover during the working day. It may
tonomy allows them to make certain choices and
be difficult for them to recover completely in their
decisions about their work; these may concern how
off-work situations. Hence, signs of fatigue may
they plan their work (timing control) or the meth-
accumulate and become more severe in high-strain
ods they use to carry out their work (method con-
jobs. As proposed in the demand-control-support
trol). Karasek’s (1979) demand-control model sug-
model, these negative effects of a high-strain job
gests that autonomy is particularly important for
may be most marked when levels of job social sup-
employees’ intrinsic motivation when they find
port are low.
themselves in highly demanding jobs. However,
little evidence is available showing that employees
Hypothesis 1. High job demands will be asso-
who face high job demands but perceive high job
ciated with greater fatigue when job control is
control are especially likely to be more intrinsically
low.
motivated, more productive, and engaged in learn-
Hypothesis 2. High job demands will be asso-
ing activities to a higher extent (Parker & Sprigg,
ciated with greater fatigue when both job con-
1999; Theorell & Karasek, 1996).
trol and job social support are low.
In methodological terms, a two-way interaction
Karasek’s Expanded Model: The Demand-
between job demands and job control was expected
Control-Support Model
to affect fatigue (Hypothesis 1) and to be qualified
Johnson (1986) introduced the term “iso-strain”
by the three-way interaction between job demands,
(that is, “isolation strain”), referring to jobs with
job control, and job social support (Hypothesis 2).
high demands, low control, and low job social sup-
We expected the hypothesized interaction between
port, and showed that employees in high iso-strain
job demands and job control to occur when job
jobs reported more heart disease, fatigue, and other
social support is low.
health complaints. Drawing on Johnson’s (1986)
From both a theoretical and a practical point of
dissertation research, Karasek and Theorell (1990)
view, an interesting question is whether social sup-
argued that job social support may facilitate suc-
port may not only buffer potentially harmful effects
cessful coping with high-strain jobs, preventing or
of high-strain jobs, but may also promote employ-
buffering the potentially harmful effects of these
ees’ intrinsic motivation in these kind of jobs. Feel-
kinds of jobs (cf. Cohen & Wills, 1985). However, in
ing valued and supported by one’s supervisor and
their recent review on the demand-control-support
colleagues obviously makes a work environment
model, Van der Doef and Maes (1999) pointed out
more pleasant and rewarding. Particularly in high-
that a considerable number of studies have in-
strain jobs, one of employees’ most salient concerns
cluded measures of job demands, job control, and
is whether they get the job done. The perceived
job social support, but only five have actually ex-
availability of instrumental support may elevate
amined whether job social support buffered the
levels of intrinsic motivation because it enhances
impact of high-strain jobs. The results of these five
employees’ confidence that the job will get done
studies are highly inconsistent and provide no con-
and facilitates perceptions of relatedness, that is,
clusive evidence regarding Karasek and Theorell’s
the feeling of being connected to others (e.g., Val-
(1990) prediction that job social support is a buffer.
lerand, 1997). In other words, we expected the per-

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Van Yperen and Hagedoorn
341
ceived availability of instrumental support to trans-
times,” 3
“often,” 4
“always”) followed each item
form a high-demand, low-control job not only into
in the scales measuring job demands, job control, and
a low-strain job (see Hypothesis 2), but also into a
job social support. For each respondent, we averaged
motivation-enhancing or active job.
the item scores of all measures into single indicators.
The Appendix gives all the component items.
Hypothesis 3. High job demands will be asso-
Job demands. The 11 items of the measure of
ciated with greater intrinsic motivation when
quantitative job demands refer to the degree to
job control is high.
which an employee has to work fast and hard, has
Hypothesis 4. High job demands will be asso-
a great deal to do, and has too little time (cf. Ganster
ciated with greater intrinsic motivation when
& Fusilier, 1989). Cronbach’s alpha was high at .90.
job control or job social support or both are
Job control. This focused measure of job control
high.
(Wall et al., 1996) consists of 11 items as well,
including items referring to timing control and
Thus, also with regard to intrinsic motivation, we
method control. Cronbach’s alpha was .90. A vali-
expected that the two-way interaction predicted by
dation check suggested by Parker and Sprigg (1999)
the demand-control model (Hypothesis 3) could be
revealed that nurses with leadership tasks reported
qualified by the three-way interaction between job
more job control than those without leadership
demands, job control, and job social support. Spe-
tasks ( ¯x
cifically, the hypothesized interactive effect of job
leader
2.96, s.d.
0.49, and ¯xnoleader
2.68, s.d.
0.54; t
demands and job control on intrinsic motivation
546
3.80, p
.001).
Job social support. Karasek and Theorell defined
(Hypothesis 3) was expected when job social sup-
social support at work as “overall levels of helpful
port is low.
social interaction available on the job from co-
workers and supervisors” (1990: 69). In several
METHODS
studies, the correlations between supervisory and
coworker support have been moderate to high, and
Sample and Procedures
separate analyses for these two sources of job sup-
The sample for this study was drawn from nurses
port have revealed similar results (e.g., Fisher,
who worked at specialized units for patients with
1985; Karasek, Triantis, & Chaudhry, 1982). There-
different levels of mental deficiency, varying from
fore, and for reasons of parsimony, we decided to
those with moderate mental retardation (patients
use one combined, four-item measure of the per-
who could care for themselves to a certain extent)
ceived availability of instrumental support on the
to those with profound mental retardation (patients
job. Cronbach’s alpha was .80.
who required total supervision and nursing care).
Fatigue. This 11-item measure reflects the extent
Data were collected as part of a more general survey
to which employees feel fatigued at the end of a
on safety, health, and well-being in the workplace.
working day and have a need to recover. This mea-
Meetings were organized to inform employees
sure is very similar to Karasek’s (1979) indicator of
about the general purpose of the study and to em-
mental strain, termed “exhaustion,” that he used in
phasize that participation was voluntary and con-
his landmark study. Van Veldhoven (1996) demon-
fidential. All the nurses employed in the organiza-
strated that this fatigue scale was strongly related to
tion received the questionnaire by regular mail,
rumination, psychological health symptoms, and
along with a letter that recapitulated the informa-
job strain. Respondents indicated on a two-point
tion given at the meetings. The response rate was
scale (1
“no,” and 2
“yes”) whether or not each
83 percent. Included in the final sample were 555
item applied to them. For a scale composed of
nurses who were gainfully employed half-time (50
dichotomous items, the most appropriate index of
percent of the workweek) or more. All nurses had
internal consistency is the Kuder-Richardson for-
completed a senior secondary or a higher voca-
mula 20 (KR-20; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). In
tional program, and 58 nurses (10.5 percent) had
the present sample, this equivalent to Cronbach’s
leadership tasks. The mean age of sample members
alpha was high at .87.
was 35.5 years, and 68.8 percent were women.
Intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation was
assessed with an adjusted version (that is, adapted
to the context of the focal job here) of the Intrinsic
Measures
Motivation Scale developed and validated by Val-
The measures of job demands, job control, and
lerand and his associates (for a review, see Valler-
fatigue that we used were developed and validated by
and [1997]). This 12-item scale represents three
Van Veldhoven (1996) in his dissertation research. A
types of intrinsic motivation: intrinsic motivation
four-point response scale (1
“never,” 2
“some-
to know (items 1– 4), to accomplish things (items

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Academy of Management Journal
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5– 8), and to experience stimulation (items 9 –12).
tion) with two rival four-factor (oblique) specifica-
Items were followed by a seven-point response
tions. In the two competing models, the job de-
scale, ranging from 1, “strongly disagree,” to 7,
mands and job control items “loaded” on one
“strongly agree.” It is important to note that Valle-
factor, and the job demands and fatigue items
rand and his associates typically used one index for
loaded on one factor. As Kelloway (1998) noted, the
intrinsic motivation by combining the three sub-
quality of the fit of a theoretical model is based on
scales (e.g., Richer & Vallerand, 1995; Vallerand,
both whether it provides a good absolute fit to the
1997) or by using an abridged version (e.g., Guay,
data and whether it fits better than competing mod-
Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2000). This procedure is
els. As is typical in confirmatory factor analysis
parsimonious, but Vallerand and associates fol-
(Kelloway, 1998), the chi-square associated with
lowed it primarily because their research indicated
our five-factor model was significant, as indicated
that the types of intrinsic motivation are not differ-
by the normal-theory weighted least squares index
ently related to specific antecedents and conse-
( 2
quences, including status as a high school dropout,
NWLS [1,117]
3,745.23, p
.01). However, the
root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA)
positive emotions, effort, and perceived compe-
of .07 was below the .08 cutoff value recommended
tence (Vallerand, 1997). Accordingly, we had no
expectations about differing effects of job demands,
by experts, and the standardized root-mean-square
job control, social support, and their interactions
residual (SRMR) of .07 can be interpreted as indi-
on the three subscales of intrinsic motivation, and
cating an acceptable fit to the data (e.g., Hu &
for each respondent we averaged the scores on the
Bentler, 1999). Even more importantly, our five-
12 items representing the three highly correlated
factor model provided a better fit to the data than
subscales (r’s
.56) into one single indicator of
did both plausible rival specifications. All the
intrinsic motivation. Cronbach’s alpha was .88.
fit indexes of both competing four-factor models
were worse (that is, larger) than those of our five-
factor model ( 2NWLS [1,121]
8,741.82, p
.01;
RESULTS
RMSEA
.11; SRMR
.09, and 2NWLS [1,121]
Correlations and Confirmatory Factor Analysis
6,369.18, p
.01; RMSEA
.09; SRMR
.08,
respectively). In addition, another comparative in-
Table 1 shows low to moderate correlations be-
dex, Akaike’s information criterion (AIC; Hu &
tween the five constructs of our measurement
Bentler, 1999) was better (that is, smaller) for our
model. The strongest associations were observed
five-factor model than for either rival specification
between job demands and job control (r
.34),
(AIC
and between fatigue and job demands (r
.43) and
5-factor
3,961.23, AIC4-factorA
8,949.82, and
AIC
job control (r
.32). To test for common method
4-factorB
6,577.18, respectively). Together with
the low to moderate correlations between the scales
variance, a potential problem for our analysis, and
(see Table 1), these results indicate that the five scales
to help to establish the convergent and discrimi-
of our measurement model represent concepts that
nant validity of our measures, we conducted a con-
firmatory factor analysis (CFA) with LISREL 8.50
are not only theoretically, but also empirically, dis-
(Jo¨reskog & So¨rbom, 1996). Specifically, we tested
tinguishable. Tests of other rival specifications, in-
our measurement model by comparing our five-
cluding those in which the subscales of intrinsic mo-
factor (oblique) model (job demands, job control,
tivation and job social support loaded on separate
job social support, fatigue, and intrinsic motiva-
factors, led to the same conclusion.
TABLE 1
Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviationsa
Variable
Mean
s.d.
1
2
3
4
5
6
1. Age
35.49
8.92
2. Percent employed
0.82
0.17
.03
3. Job demands
2.48
0.49
.02
.07
4. Job control
2.71
0.54
.27
.08
.34
5. Job social support
3.20
0.75
.15
.02
.18
.11
6. Fatigue
1.36
0.30
.08
.06
.43
.32
.23
7. Intrinsic motivation
5.05
0.88
.15
.04
.06
.10
.24
.14
a n
555. Correlations of .11 and above are significant at the .01 level (two-sided).

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Van Yperen and Hagedoorn
343
Test of the Hypotheses
group differed significantly from that in the high
job control group when job demands were high
To test our hypotheses, we conducted hierarchi-
(b
.19, p
.001), whereas no significant differ-
cal regression analyses with fatigue and intrinsic
ence between the two groups was observed in the
motivation regressed on job demands, job control,
case of low job demands (b
.04, n.s.). Thus,
job social support, and their interactions. To avoid
multicollinearity between the predictors and the
support was found for Hypothesis 1, indicating that
interaction terms, we centered the predictor vari-
job control mitigates the negative effect of high job
ables around zero and multiplied them to form the
demands on fatigue. As shown in Table 2, the two-
interaction terms (Aiken & West, 1991). Age and
way interactive effect of job demands and job con-
percentage of gainfully employed working hours,
trol on fatigue was not qualified by the three-way
and the categorical variables gender and whether or
interaction between job demands, job control, and
not leadership tasks were part of a nurse’s job de-
job social support. Hence, Hypothesis 2, which
scription (coded as dummy variables) were entered
states that high job demands are associated with
as covariates (see Table 2). Additional analyses
greater fatigue when both job control and job social
were conducted to test the statistical significance of
support are low, was rejected.
the simple slopes (Aiken & West, 1991).
Hypothesis 3 states that high job demands will be
The results of the regression analyses are pre-
associated with greater intrinsic motivation when
sented in Table 2. Hypothesis 1 was that high job
job control is high. Table 2 shows that the interac-
demands will be associated with greater fatigue
tion between job demands and job control had no
when job control is low. The significant effect of
significant effect on intrinsic motivation, so Hy-
the interaction of job demands and job control on
pothesis 3 was rejected. Instead, we observed an
fatigue (see Table 2) is plotted in Figure 1. As
unexpected two-way interaction between job de-
indicated by both significant simple slopes, nurses
mands and job social support, which could be qual-
felt more fatigued at the end of the day when they
ified by the three-way interactive effect of job de-
perceived job demands to be higher. However, the
mands, job control, and job social support on
significant two-way interaction indicates that the
intrinsic motivation. Hypothesis 4 states that high
link between job demands and fatigue was stronger
job demands will be associated with greater intrin-
when job control was low. Indeed, additional tests
sic motivation when job control or job social sup-
of differences between the predicted values on fa-
port or both are high. The observed three-way in-
tigue (for this procedure, see Aiken and West
teraction (see Table 2) displayed in Figures 2a and
[1991]) showed that the value in the low job control
2b) revealed partial support for Hypothesis 4. Spe-
TABLE 2
Results of Regression Analysesa
Fatigue
Intrinsic Motivation
Step and Variable
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1. Gender
.00
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
.03
Age
.00
.00
.00
.00
.01**
.01**
.01**
.01**
Percent employed
.14
.09
.09
.09
.20
.14
.17
.18
Leadership tasks
.03
.04
.03
.03
.08
.07
.06
.07
2. Job demands
.21***
.22***
.22***
.01
.02
.01
Job control
.09***
.10***
.10***
.17*
.18*
.12
Job social support
.08***
.08***
.08**
.31***
.32***
.25***
3. Job demands
job control
.15***
.15***
.19
.19
Job demands
job social support
.02
.02
.34**
.30**
Job control
job social support
.00
.01
.02
.01
4. Job demands
job control
job social support
.05
.71**
R2
.01
.25***
.27***
.27***
.02**
.08***
.10***
.12***
R2
.01
.24***
.02**
.00
.02**
.06***
.02**
.02**
a Unstandardized regression coefficients are shown. n
555.
* p
.05
** p
.01
*** p
.001

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Academy of Management Journal
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FIGURE 1
Interactive Effect of Job Demands and Job Control on Fatigue
cifically, when job social support was low (Figure
prevent employees facing high job demands from
2a), the observed pattern was in line with Karasek’s
becoming fatigued and exhausted; a further ques-
(1979) demand-control model. Increasing job de-
tion was whether these two job conditions can en-
mands were accompanied by an increase in intrin-
hance intrinsic motivation. Overall, the pattern of
sic motivation only when job control was high. The
results suggests that as job demands increase, high
predicted value in the high job control group dif-
job control is needed to limit fatigue, whereas ei-
fered significantly from that in the low job control
ther high job control or high job social support is
group when job demands were high (b
.43, p
needed to enhance intrinsic work motivation.
.001), whereas the difference between the two
groups was not significant when job demands were
low (b
.18, n.s.).
Limitations
We unexpectedly found rather high levels of in-
trinsic motivation in less demanding jobs when job
The reliance on self-report measures may be con-
social support was high. As shown in Figure 2b,
sidered a limitation of the present study. For exam-
intrinsic motivation was particularly high among
ple, self-reports of job demands generally reflect
participants who perceived low job demands com-
variance arising from true variability in objective
bined with high job control and high job social
job demands and from employees’ subjective as-
support. When job demands were low, the pre-
sessments. Hence, we do not know how much vari-
dicted value in the high job control group differed
ability in actual job demands there really was in the
significantly from that in the low job control group
present sample, in which there was relatively little
(b
.24, p
.05). When perceived job demands
variation in job requirements. Moreover, the rather
were high, there was no difference between the
strong link between job demands and fatigue may
values in the two groups (b
.00, n.s.). Rather than
be partly a consequence of common method vari-
promoting intrinsic motivation, the perceived avail-
ance and of the job demands measure including
ability of job social support seems to stabilize intrin-
items that tap an affective component (for instance,
sic motivation at a rather high level as job demands
“working hard and fast,” “too little time”) that is
increase. Exploratory hierarchical regression analyses
shared with the fatigue measure (Wall et al., 1996).
with either supervisory support or coworker support
Self-report measures ignore the shared variance of
(assessed with our two-item subscales) revealed sim-
incumbents, producing overestimations of stressor-
ilar results. Furthermore, unlike earlier studies (for a
strain relationships, whereas “objective” measures
review, see Van der Doef and Maes [1999]), our study
and ratings by nonincumbents ignore individual
showed no evidence of gender-related effects in the
variance, which leads to underestimation of these
relationships identified.
relationships (VanYperen & Snijders, 2000). It
should be noted, however, that confirmatory factor
analyses supported the convergent and discrimi-
DISCUSSION
nant validity of our measures (cf. VanYperen &
The key question in the present study is whether
Janssen, 2002). Furthermore, there is no theoretical
either job control or social support or both can
reason to expect an interaction owing to common

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Van Yperen and Hagedoorn
345
FIGURE 2
Interactive Effect of Job Demands, Job Control, and Job Social Support on Intrinsic Motivationa
a Low job social support reflects a value of 1 s.d. below the mean. High job social support reflects a value of 1 s.d. above the mean.
method variance (Xie, 1996). To the contrary, com-
tion (VanYperen & Janssen, 2002), perceived ability-
mon method variance reduces the likelihood of
job fit (Xie, 1996), self-efficacy (Schaubroeck &
detecting interaction effects (Wall et al., 1996). In-
Merritt, 1997; VanYperen & Snijders, 2000), fair-
deed, previous studies employing self-report mea-
ness perceptions (Janssen, 2001), and proactive
sures have shown considerable support for the ad-
personality (Parker & Sprigg, 1999). The moderat-
ditive effects of both variables, but less for the
ing role of individual difference variables may also
interactive effect between job demands and job
explain the inconsistent findings of tests of the
control (Van der Doef & Maes, 1999). Also, it has to
demand-control model in previous studies (Parker
be noted that it is not possible to make causal
& Sprigg, 1999; Schaubroeck & Merritt, 1997; Xie,
inferences because our data are cross-sectional. Fi-
1996).
nally, it is obvious that Karasek’s (1979) two-factor
model, even expanded with job social support as a
Theoretical Contributions
third factor, is not comprehensive enough to com-
pletely explain fatigue and intrinsic motivation at
Karasek’s (1979) demand-control model is gener-
work. In future research, the explanation of the
ally recognized as providing an appealing theoret-
occurrence of these job outcomes might be im-
ical basis for stress research in organizational sci-
proved by including variables such as goal orienta-
ence. As Xie (1996) noted, however, there has been

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Academy of Management Journal
June
relatively little theoretical development of the
authority to deal with special requests formerly
model. An exception is the formulation of the dy-
referred to supervisors and to quote complex fares
namic version of the model, according to which job
formerly referred to specialists. A key contribution
strain inhibits work motivation and work motiva-
of the present study is our finding suggesting that
tion inhibits job strain (Karasek & Theorell, 1990;
the perceived availability of instrumental support
Theorell & Karasek, 1996). The significant but low
on the job may produce elevated levels of intrinsic
correlation (r
.14, Table 1) between intrinsic
work motivation, regardless of the level of job de-
motivation and fatigue observed in the present
mands and job control. Hence, a priority of manag-
study is, however, in line with the fact that no
ers should be to teach employees about the helping
earlier studies suggest that these two variables
potential of support systems within their organiza-
strongly affect each other (Parker & Sprigg, 1999).
tions. For example, Heaney, Price, and Rafferty
One of the theoretical contributions of the present
(1995) conducted a field experiment among human
study is that it provides further empirical evidence
service workers to help to develop the skills and
for the basic tenets of Karasek’s (1979) initial de-
concepts necessary for enhancing and making
mand-control model with regard to the buffering
fuller use of their existing social relationships. By
effect of job control on job strain. More importantly,
mapping and diagnosing the strengths and weak-
the present study contributes to the theoretical de-
nesses of their own social networks, participants in
velopment of the demand-control-support model
the experimental group explored how social sup-
by providing preliminary evidence for one of its
port from others might help solve problems at
basic, but largely neglected, tenets. Specifically, the
work. Further, they worked on refining the inter-
findings suggest that as job demands increase, en-
personal skills associated with exchanging social
hancing job control may lead to elevated levels of
support with others, including clarifying misun-
intrinsic motivation, but only when job social sup-
derstandings, providing constructive feedback, and
port is low. Unexpectedly, our findings suggest that
asking for help from others. Results indicated,
increasing job social support is the most effective
among other things, that the intervention enhanced
way to enhance intrinsic motivation, regardless of
a positive work team climate. In conclusion, by
job demands and job control. Note that we are
enhancing job control and job social support rather
dealing here with the perceived availability of in-
than reducing job demands and sacrificing produc-
strumental support, which may help nurses to deal
tivity, it seems possible to reduce job strain and to
with high job demands without their receiving ac-
keep employees intrinsically motivated to do their
tual help from others (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Re-
highly demanding jobs.
ceiving actual help may reduce feelings of auton-
omy and lower one’s perceived competence and,
consequently, it may lead to a decline in an em-
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APPENDIX
changing workforce, job stress, and psychological
distress. Journal of Occupational Health Psychol-
Job demands. (1) Do you have to work fast? (2) Do you
ogy, 2: 99 –107.
have too much work to do? (3) Do you have to work extra
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. 1994. Psychometric
hard to finish a task? (4) Do you work under time pres-
sure? (5) Do you have to rush? (6) Can you do your work
theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
in comfort? (reversed item) (7) Do you have to deal with
Parker, S., & Sprigg, C. A. 1999. Minimizing strain and
a backlog at work? (8) Do you have too little work?
maximizing learning: The role of job demands, job
(reversed item) (9) Do you have problems with the pace
control, and proactive personality. Journal of Ap-
of work? (10) Do you have problems with the workload?
plied Psychology, 84: 925–939.
(11) Do you wish you could work at an easier pace?
Parker, S., & Wall, T. 1998. Job and work design: Or-
Job control. (1) Can you choose the methods to use in
ganizing work to promote well-being and effec-
carrying out your work? (2) Do you plan your own work?
tiveness. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
(3) Do you set your own pace? (4) Can you vary how you
do your work? (5) On your job, do you have the freedom
Richer, S. F., & Vallerand, R. J. 1995. Supervisors’ inter-
to take a break whenever you wish to? (6) Do you decide
actional styles and subordinates’ intrinsic and ex-
on the order in which you do things? (7) Do you decide
trinsic motivation. Journal of Social Psychology,
when to finish a piece of work? (8) Do you have full
135: 707–722.
authority in determining how much time you spend on
Schaubroeck, J., & Merritt, D. E. 1997. Divergent effects of
particular tasks? (9) Can you decide how to go about

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June
getting your job done? (10) Does your job allow you to
satisfaction while mastering certain difficult job skills.
organize your work by yourself? (11) Do you have full
(6) For the pleasure I feel while improving some of my
authority in determining the content of your work?
weak points on the job. (7) For the satisfaction I experi-
Job social support. (1) Can you rely upon your imme-
ence while I am perfecting my job skills. (8) For the
diate supervisor when things get tough at work? (2) If
satisfaction I feel while overcoming certain difficulties in
necessary, can you ask your immediate supervisor for
my job. (9) Because I feel pleasant in my job. (10) For the
help? (3) Can you rely upon your co-workers when things
excitement I feel when I am really involved in my job.
get tough at work? (4) If necessary, can you ask your
(11) For the intense pleasure I feel while I am doing the
co-workers for help?
tasks that I like. (12) Because I like the feeling of being
Fatigue. (1) I find it difficult to relax at the end of a
totally immersed in my job.
working day. (2) At the end of a working day, I feel really
fatigued. (3) Due to my job, I feel rather exhausted at the
end of a working day. (4) I mostly feel rather fit after
dinner. (reversed item) (5) I usually do not calm down
until my second day off. (6) After work, it takes effort to
Nico W. VanYperen (n.van.yperen@ppsw.rug.nl) is an
concentrate in my spare time. (7) When I just come home,
associate professor of organizational psychology at the
I have little interest in other people. (8) In general, it
University of Groningen, The Netherlands. He received
takes me more than an hour to recover completely after
his Ph.D. from the University of Nijmegen. His research
work. (9) When I come home, they must leave me alone
interests include organizational stress, motivation and
for a while. (10) After a working day, I frequently feel too
job performance, and achievement goals.
fatigued to engage in any other activity. (11) During the
Marie¨t Hagedoorn is a senior researcher in the field of
last stage of a working day, I often feel too fatigued to
health psychology at the University of Groningen, The
perform well.
Netherlands. She received her Ph.D. from the University
Intrinsic motivation. General stem: “Why do you do
of Groningen. Her research interests include the role of
this job?” (1) For the pleasure it gives me to know more
social support, dyadic coping, and gender differences in
about my job. (2) For the pleasure of doing new things in
the adaptation to chronic disease.
my job. (3) For the pleasure I feel while learning new
things in my job. (4) For the pleasure of developing new
skills in my job. (5) Because I feel a lot of personal

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