Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature

A sample entry from the






Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature
(London & New York: Continuum, 2005)




Edited by

Bron Taylor








© 2005
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Ecofeminism – Historic and International Evolution
533
Related ecofeminist concerns with embodiment surface
Primavesi, Anne. From Apocalypse to Genesis. Min-
in the Earth Bible’s volume on biblical wisdom literature
neapolis: Fortress Press, 1991.
(Habel and Wurst 2001). Shirley Wurst’s focus on eco-
Ruether, Rosemary Radford, ed. Women Healing Earth.
kinship develops aspects of interconnectedness and Earth
Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1996.
kinship evident in the biblical personification of divine
Ruether, Rosemary Radford. Gaia and God: An Eco-
wisdom as a woman. Drawing on the practice of biblical
feminist Theology of Earth Healing. San Francisco:
scholar Claudia Camp, Wurst names this figure of kinship
HarperSanFrancisco, 1992.
Woman Wisdom. For Laura Hobgood-Oster, Woman
See also: Christianity (7c) – Liberation Theology; Christian-
Wisdom offers a vision of the divine which contrasts
ity (7d) – Feminist Theology; Earth Bible; Ecofeminism
with other less Earth-friendly images: “The divine being
(various); Gebara, Ivone; Ruether, Rosemary Radford.
frolicking in creation suggests a very different image than
a king sitting on a throne with Earth as ‘his’ footstool” (in
Habel and Wurst 2001: 40). Woman Wisdom inhabits the
Ecofeminism – Historic and International
realm of Earth; she invites humans to open themselves to a
Evolution
passionate knowing of Earth. In the same volume, Carole
Fontaine focuses on the celebration of sexual desire in the
Ecofeminism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s as myriad
Song of Songs. The lovers’ desire to connect is reflected in
forms of feminist and environmental theories and activ-
the wider interconnectedness of the Earth community. Not
isms intersected. The term was introduced by Françoise
only does the natural world provide space for the lovers’
d’Eaubonne in her book Le Feminisme ou la Mort
meeting and material for their metaphors, but also it itself
(Feminism or Death) published in 1974. Some theorists,
is both lover and beloved.
such as Ynestra King, name it as a third wave of feminism,
As Eaton indicates, ecofeminist interpretations must be
while others place it in the general category of deep
ethically responsible. The patriarchal and androcentric
ecology. Ecofeminism acts in both and neither of these
character of much biblical material remains a key concern.
broad movements, simultaneously serving as an environ-
So, too, does the problem of the anthropocentrism of
mental critique of feminism and a feminist critique of
the text and its readers, which tends to make ecological
environmentalism. Ecofeminist trajectories are varied;
concerns marginal to the work of biblical interpretation.
there is no one accepted or orthodox “ecofeminism.”
Further, as post-colonial insights are integrated with
Rosemary Radford Ruether, Ivone Gebara, Vandana Shiva,
ecofeminist ones, there is a critical focus on the ways in
Susan Griffin, Alice Walker, Starhawk, Sallie McFague,
which the Bible has been used in the Eurowestern project
Luisah Teish, Sun Ai Lee-Park, Paula Gunn Allen, Monica
of colonization. At the same time, eco-sensitive readings
Sjöö, Greta Gaard, Karen Warren and Andy Smith are
are emerging in the interplay between ecofeminist reader
among the voices speaking from ecofeminist positions.
and biblical text. Considering the problematic aspects of
Ecofeminism asserts that all forms of oppression are
the text, Hobgood-Oster writes: “Earth recontextualizes
connected and that structures of oppression must be
and subverts” (in Habel and Wurst 2001: 46). The chal-
addressed in their totality. Oppression of the natural world
lenge to ecofeminist interpreters of the Bible is to allow
and of women by patriarchal power structures must be
Earth to recontextualize and subvert our readings of the
examined together or neither can be confronted fully.
text.
These socially constructed oppressions formed out of the
power dynamics of patriarchical systems. In one of the
Anne Elvey
first ecofeminist books, New Woman/New Earth, Ruether,
states:
Further Reading
Adams, Carol J., ed. Ecofeminism and the Sacred. New
Women must see that there can be no liberation for
York: Continuum, 1993.
them and no solution to the ecological crisis within
Gebara, Ivone. Longing for Running Water: Ecofeminism
a society whose fundamental model of relationships
and Liberation. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999.
continues to be one of domination. They must unite
Habel, Norman C., ed. Readings from the Perspective of
the demands of the women’s movement with those
Earth. Earth Bible 1. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
of the ecological movement to envision a radical
Press, 2000.
reshaping of the basic socioeconomic relations and
Habel, Norman C. and Shirley Wurst, eds. The Earth Story
the underlying values of this [modern industrial]
in Wisdom Traditions. Earth Bible 3. Sheffield:
society (1975: 204).
Sheffield Academic Press, 2001.
Keller, Catherine. Apocalypse Now and Then: A Feminist
Ruether makes clear a central tenet of ecofeminism:
Guide to the End of the World. Boston: Beacon Press,
Earth and the other-than-human experience the tyranny
1996.
of patriarchy along with women. Classism, racism, sexism,

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534
Ecofeminism – Historic and International Evolution
heterosexism, naturism (a term coined by Warren) and
and Nature (1978) and Carolyn Merchant’s The Death of
speciesism are all intertwined.
Nature (1980).
Ecofeminism is multi-faceted and multi-located, chal-
Some of the earliest articulations of ecofeminism
lenging structures rather than individuals. By confronting
analyzed the patriarchal underpinnings in religious and
systems of patriarchy, ecofeminism broadens the scope of
philosophical systems of the European and Mediterranean
the cultural critique and incorporates seemingly disparate
world. These cultural and geographical foci surfaced from
but, according to ecofeminism, radically connected elem-
the primarily European and Euro-American voices that
ents. Combining feminist and deep ecological perspectives
constituted the initial ecofeminist conversations. Such
– in and of themselves extremely varied ways of thinking
scholars as Anne Primavesi, Carol Christ, Merchant, Daly,
about reality – is a complex, transgressive process that is
and Charlene Spretnak examined cultural and religious
often in flux. Ecofeminist positions reflect varied political
systems from such areas as ancient Mesopotamia and
stances that may be, and usually are, transformed through
Greece, as well as religious systems such as Judaism and
time and place. In other words, the political activisms and
Christianity. They proposed that patriarchal cultural
alliances stemming from ecofeminism modify in relation-
structures revolved around layers of symbol systems that
ship to the perceived justice issues being confronted in
justified domination. For example, they interpret the
differing cultural and historical settings. Because of this
creation stories in the book of Genesis, foundational for
constant morphing, ecofeminism simultaneously chal-
Judaism, Christianity and Islam, as demonizing both
lenges patriarchies from different angles. This is one of the
woman (Eve) and animal (the snake).
myriad strengths of the fluid and radically diverse posi-
These and other early ecofeminists analyzed pre-
tions assumed by ecofeminism.
patriarchal cultures in the Mediterranean and old Euro-
Ecofeminism claims that patriarchal structures justify
pean worlds as well. Feminist historian Gerda Lerner and
their dominance through categorical or dualistic hier-
archeomythologist Marija Gimbutas provided some of the
archies: heaven/Earth, mind/body, male/female, human/
groundwork for this analysis. Gimbutas’ theories of Old
animal, spirit/matter, culture/nature, white/non-white.
Europe are based in her complex and widely critiqued
Established oppressive systems continue to manifest
archeomythological reconstructions. Her theories suggest
their abusive powers by reinforcing assumptions of these
that life-valuing, sometimes matriarchal and rarely
binaries, even making them sacred through religious and
militaristic societies existed before Indo-Aryan invaders
scientific constructs. Ecofeminism posits that as long as
slowly destroyed these cultures. Lerner’s historical
any of the dualisms exist as an integral component of
reconstructions focus on the shift from small Neolithic
societal structuring and justification, they will all continue
villages to city-based states with the accompanying rise
to serve as starting points to justify patriarchy. Therefore
of patriarchal cultural systems. Both theorists posit
all dualisms and binary oppositional forms must be dis-
pre-patriarchal Mediterranean world religious cultures
mantled otherwise humanity remains “divided against”
in which fertility goddesses and other nature symbolism
itself, a phrase that Griffin uses to describe the ideological
figured prominently.
impact of dualism.
Gradually, patriarchal, militaristic sky gods replaced
As a justice advocate for the entire web of life, eco-
Earth goddesses and gods. Most of the ancient symbols
feminism resists dividing culture into these imbedded
of power were subverted and remythologized as evil or
separate or dualistic arenas. In her introduction to Eco-
chaotic. The mother goddess, whose body often birthed or
feminism: Women, Culture, Nature, editor Warren asserts:
constituted the Earth, became the target of the powerful
“What makes ecofeminism distinct is its insistence that
sky gods, as evidenced by such creation stories as the
nonhuman nature and naturism (i.e., the unjustified
Babylonian Enuma Elish. The pattern of male deities
domination of nature) are feminist issues. Ecofeminist
killing female or animal deities in an effort to establish
philosophy extends familiar feminist critiques of social
a patriarchal order and to control forces assumed to be
isms of domination to nature” (1997: 4).
chaotic repeats itself consistently. The snake, once a sym-
Ecofeminism’s constructive worldview replaces hier-
bol of life, was trampled under the foot of the male deity
archical dualisms with radical diversity and relationship,
and connected to evil. Hell was in the Earth, and Heaven
modeled on both biodiversity and the feminist emphasis
was removed to the sky. Paradise lost its materiality and
on the strength of difference.
became a masculine, hierarchical projection.
Throughout the 1970s, few ecofeminists in academic
Such theories raise many questions for scholars inter-
settings designated themselves as such, though several
ested in the reconstruction of early human civilizations.
engaged in similar theoretical endeavors linking feminist
For example, few archeologists accept Gimbutas’ theories
and environmental ideas. Early publications that analyze
and suggest that they are projections of matriarchal and
the woman/nature connection in light of the environ-
goddess myths. Still, some ecofeminists reference these
mental crisis include Ruether’s New Woman/New Earth
historical reconstructions as alternatives to the commonly
(1975), Mary Daly’s Gyn/Ecology (1978), Griffin’s Woman
accepted patriarchal constructions that project historical

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Ecofeminism – Historic and International Evolution
535
progress. In other words, the idea of civilizations
uniform measure of the worth of classes, cultures,
advancing from pre-agricultural to agricultural to indus-
and genders . . . Diversity, and unity and harmony in
trial to post-industrial/technological might also be con-
diversity, become epistemologically unattainable
strued as a mythological projection. Applying feminist
in the context of maldevelopment, which then
historical methodology, some academic ecofeminists
becomes synonymous with women’s underdevelop-
reevaluate the patriarchal myth of progress, particularly
ment (increasing sexist domination), and nature’s
its detrimental effects on the human–nature relationship.
depletion (deepening ecological crises) (Shiva in
Carolyn Merchant articulates a version of this critique in
Plant 1989: 83).
The Death of Nature.
From the work of Griffin, Daly, Ruether, Merchant and
Shiva also published, with Maria Mies, a German,
others in the 1970s, grew a dramatic expansion of eco-
Marxist sociologist, Ecofeminism: Reconnecting a Divided
feminism in academic circles during the 1980s and 1990s.
World (1993). In this book the authors connect the
Activist movements, sometimes connected with but gen-
capitalist-patriarchal economic system with the oppres-
erally outside of the academy, also increased in the
sion of women in both the northern and southern
1980s. Several conferences focusing on ecofeminism were
hemispheres. However Shiva, not unlike some other eco-
organized: “Women and Life on Earth: Eco-feminism in
feminists, has been criticized for essentializing women
the Eighties” (1980), “Ecofeminist Perspectives: Culture,
and nature in her work.
Nature, Theory” (1987), and a group at the National
Another area of focus concerned the relationship of
Women’s Studies Association (1989). These efforts, along
scientific worldviews to religion and culture. Ecofeminism
with other attempts to create sustainable organizations
suggests that the antagonism sometimes existing between
such as the Feminist Peace Institute and WomanEarth, led
religious and scientific worldviews has been detrimental,
to the publication of several foundational anthologies.
used by both approaches to advance their own hierarchical
Reclaim the Earth: Women Speak Out for Life on Earth,
structures. The reductionist models of both Western
edited by Stephanie Leland and Leonie Caldecott (1983);
theologies and many Western scientific ideologies project
Healing the Wounds: The Promise of Ecofeminism, edited
a material world that is not sacred, but mechanistic. This
by Judith Plant (1989); and Reweaving the World: The
apparent disconnect between the material and the sacred,
Emergence of Ecofeminism, edited by Irene Diamond and
alleged by ecofeminists to be fostered by both religion and
Gloria Orenstein (1990). All three volumes were edited by
science, has been particularly detrimental when acted
Euro-American ecofeminists but the editors included
upon by European-American dominant cultures. The
authors from various cultures. Petra Kelly, in her foreword
Christian ecofeminist theologian Sallie McFague, in her
to Healing the Wounds, proclaims a “global ecological
book The Body of God: An Ecological Theology (1993),
sisterhood” and calls on the women of the Chipko Move-
summarizes the situation:
ment (India), the Greenham Common (England), the Krim
Region (former Soviet Union) and the Western Shoshone
Moreover, and most significant for an ecological
Indian Nation to “link arms” as global sisters (1989: ix).
theology, this picture projected disembodiment:
The practice of publishing anthologies with diverse voices
disembodied knowing (the Cartesian mind/body
rather than books representing just one voice exhibits the
dualism) and disembodied doing (internal human
overall tendency among ecofeminists to value inclusivity
peace or forgiveness of sins became the principal
and difference. Still these anthologies, while influential,
action between God and the world) (1993: 29).
were criticized for essentializing the woman/nature con-
nection and for over-romanticizing or over-simplifying
In The Death of Nature, Merchant links this hierarchical,
women in non-Western cultures.
mechanistic approach to nature to the oppression of
Vandana Shiva, a physicist and environmental
women. She argues that, whereas organic thinking and
researcher/activist in India, published Staying Alive:
interdependence shaped European life through the Middle
Women, Ecology and Survival in India (1988), which
Ages, the “fathers” of the scientific revolution determined
reflects the increasingly global nature of ecofeminism
to dominate nature. Merchant quotes Francis Bacon
during the 1980s. Shiva connects the “death of the femi-
extensively. He proposes to “hound nature in her wander-
nine principle” with “maldevelopment,” a term she uses to
ings” in order to “drive her afterward to the same place
describe the introduction of Western, intensive agriculture
again.” To disclose the “secrets of nature” Bacon suggests
to the “Third World.” In her essay “Development, Ecology
that “entering and penetrating into these holes and cor-
and Women” Shiva articulates the relationship clearly:
ners” of nature will lead to the uncovering of truth (in
Merchant 1980: 168). During the same general time
Maldevelopment militates against this equality in
period, numerous European women (and men, though sig-
diversity, and superimposes the ideologically con-
nificantly fewer) were accused of witchcraft. The Malleus
structed category of western technological man as a
Maleficarum or Hammer of Witches (1486), a manual on

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536
Ecofeminism – Historic and International Evolution
identifying and interrogating witches, instructed inquisi-
national colleagues. Other major international con-
tors to “penetrate” and torture witches in order to discover
ferences that linked environmentalism and women’s issues
their secrets. Merchant argues that the feminine language
were the “U.N.’s Environmental Programme’s (UNEP)
used for “nature” and the parallel violent approaches of
Global Assembly on Women and the Environment” and
control assigned against unruly nature and unruly women
the “World Women’s Congress for a Healthy Planet,” both
are obvious.
held in Miami in 1991. While these international eco-
Both Merchant and McFague emphasize the new (and
feminist (though not named explicitly as such) gatherings
also old), organic model of the cosmos developing in some
connected academic voices with activist voices, there are
areas of science and religion. The “common creation
some ecofeminists whose focus has been activist and
story” and the growing field of ecology, as well as some
justice-oriented who deliberately separate themselves
new cosmologies emerging from physics, provide fertile
from the academic arena in general, and in particular from
ground for ecofeminist entry into dialogue with the
the Euro-American academy.
natural sciences.
The issue of racism within ecofeminist, and feminist,
The first volume of essays to focus on the topic of
dialogues has also been prominent. Though paying sig-
ecofeminism and spirituality was Ecofeminism and the
nificant attention to diversity, white ecofeminists have
Sacred, edited by Carol Adams. Voices from various
often essentialized racial difference. For example, in the
religious and ethnic perspectives were included; for
academic anthologies listed above, Shiva’s voice figures
example: Hindu (Lina Gupta), Jewish (Judith Plaskow),
prominently and seems to stand for all women who are
Buddhist (Stephanie Kaza), Native American (Andy Smith),
not European or Euro-American. Few women of color
Womanist (Delores Williams), Christian (McFague). The
have been able to remain in positions of leadership in
volume combined voices from activist positions as well
activist or academic organizations for long periods of
as from academic ones, with many contributors speaking
time. The political power of white women in these
from both simultaneously. Byllye Avery of the National
organizations undermines, often unintentionally, that of
Black Women’s Health Project and Zoe Weil of ANIMAL-
women of color. Even though such organizations as
EARN, a division of the American Anti-vivisection
WomanEarth attempted to make racism an integral part of
Society, are two such contributors.
the ecofeminist conversation, racial tensions contributed
During the same three decades (1970–2000), eco-
to the eventual disbanding of numerous ecofeminist
feminist activists engaged in myriad protests, boycotts
dialogue groups. Even the designations “white” and “of
and campaigns to bring attention to the interconnection
color” seem to maintain a binary within ecofeminism as it
of justice issues related to women and the environment
tries to subvert all such labels.
as a whole. Feminism is politically activist at its core
Another outcome of issues connected to racism is the
and feminist methodologies applied to scholarly work
critique of the label “ecofeminist” by various activists
make political engagement requisite. Various scholars
from indigenous peoples. For example, Winona LaDuke
entered the activist arena via their intellectual contri-
(Anishinaabeg), director of the Honor the Earth Fund
butions and various activists entered the academic arena
and the White Earth Land Recovery Project, identifies
via their commitment to justice-oriented endeavors.
herself as an activist for indigenous people rather
Many first generation ecofeminists encountered each
than an ecofeminist activist. In an interview with Judith
other through antimilitarist and anti-nuclear protests
Plant (published in Healing the Wounds) Marie Wilson,
during the height of the Cold War. In 1980 A Handbook
member of the Gitksan-Wet’suwet’en Tribal Council
for Women on the Nuclear Mentality, written by Susan
(British Columbia) explains her perspective on this issue:
Koen and Nina Swaim, used the word ecofeminism as a
foundational concept for action. The Women’s Pentagon
At the risk of sounding scornful or derogatory I have
Actions (1980–1981) and the Greenham Women’s
to say that the Indian attitude toward the natural
Peace Camp (established in 1981) are two examples
world is different from the environmentalists. I have
of ecofeminist, antimilitarization and anti-nuclear
had the awful feeling that when we are finished
organizations.
dealing with the courts and our land claims, we will
The influence of the United Nations Decade for Women
then have to battle the environmentalists and they
(1975–1985), with its many gatherings and coalition-
will not understand why (Wilson in Plant 1989:
building opportunities, on the development of eco-
217).
feminism has not been adequately researched. Various
international political conferences sponsored by the U.N.
Some of this tension grows from the appropriation of
and international NGOs did impact ecofeminist activisms.
indigenous religious rituals by white people, including
For example, the U.N. Conference on Women in Nairobi in
some ecofeminists. Andy Smith harshly criticizes such
1985 brought together ecofeminist leaders and provided
borrowing in her essay “For All Those Who Were Indian in
them with further opportunities to connect with inter-
a Former Life” (Ecofeminism and the Sacred).

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Ecofeminism – Historic and International Evolution
537
Ecowomanists and African-American ecofeminists,
deeply involved with sustainable woodland development
express related concerns. They identify with racism as the
in Zimbabwe and their connection to sacred places where
first and most dominant oppression in their experience,
trees are protected is requisite for reforestation.
while sexism is secondary. As Shamara Shantu Riley
Ecofeminism has not been without critics, from eco-
points out in Ecofeminism and the Sacred:
feminists themselves as well as from others. Some of the
most ardent critics question the woman/nature link that is
There are several differences between ecofeminism
sometimes placed at the core of ecofeminism, as evidenced
and Afrocentric ecowomanism. While Afrocentric
in the title of such essays as Sherry Ortner’s “Is Female
ecowomanism also articulates the links between
to Male as Nature is to Culture?” (1974). Because of the
male supremacy and environmental degradation, it
strong woman–nature connection assumed and developed
lays far more stress on other distinctive features,
in some ecofeminist positions, various feminists distance
such as race and class, that leave an impression
themselves from ecofeminism and suggest that it is
markedly different from ecofeminists’ theories (Riley
essentialist in nature. Essentialism claims that cross-
in Adams 1993: 197).
culturally and cross-historically those of a particular race,
gender or other category share the same traits. Many
With the growing recognition of the extensive environ-
expressions of feminism and ecofeminism argue against
mental racism in the United States and on a global scale,
all such essentialist constructions, while others expres-
ecowomanists and others determine that their political
sions seem to maintain essentialism. Kate Nash, in her
alliances need to shift from a feminist agenda to one more
1994 essay “The Feminist Production of Knowledge: Is
directly engaging issues of race and class. This complexi-
Deconstruction a Practice for Women?” published in
fying of interconnected oppressions, a central tenet of
Feminist Review, clarifies the “tension” between the
ecofeminism, continues to arise within the varieties of
“deconstructive politics of feminism and the assertions,
ecofeminism itself.
or constructions of unified identity that feminists are fre-
Globalization of all aspects of environmentalism has
quently called on to make on behalf of the category
begun to shift the momentum in ecofeminism as well.
‘women’ which gives the project its political specificity”
Women Healing Earth: Third World Women on Ecology,
(Nash 1994: 75–6).
Feminism, and Religion (Ruether, ed. 1996) provides
Various attempts at typologizing feminisms and
insight into Latin American, Asian and African eco-
ecofeminisms have been made and are helpful for clari-
feminism. In the introduction Ruether notes that while
fying the diverse perspectives, though it should be noted
ecofeminism is not a “movement” in these large geo-
that even these designations are understood differently by
graphical areas, the global dialogue inspired by connec-
different ecofeminists. Cultural and radical forms tend
tions between the oppression of women and nature needs
to idealize the feminine (therefore being labeled as
to be recognized. The contributors are all local/global
essentialist more often) whereas activist (and theoretical)
activists and their work speaks to the globalization of
ecofeminists usually see their position as an analysis of a
ecofeminisms. The Con-Spirando Collective in Chile
particular historical and cultural phenomenon. Some
collaborated with Ruether in developing the volume.
activist ecofeminists do engage in shifting political
Con-spirando, translated as “breathing with” or “spiritual
alliances that employ essentialist arguments functionally,
conspiracy,” tries to “weave a network of women through-
but disengage from these alliances and reform others as
out Latin America who are interested in feminist theology,
requisite for effectively subverting patriarchal structures.
spirituality and ecofeminism” while also holding women’s
One of the most helpful treatments of this continuing,
rituals (1996: 51). This collective publishes a magazine by
sometimes heated, interaction among diverse manifest-
the same name and operates a women’s center in Santiago
ations of ecofeminism is Noel Sturgeon’s work Ecofeminist
in addition to focusing specifically on ecofeminist activ-
Natures: Race, Gender, Feminist Theory and Political
isms and analyses. Victoria Tauli-Corpuz, from the tribal
Action (1997). In addition to these groupings within
community of the Igorots in the Philippines, reflects on
ecofeminism are ecowomanism, mentioned above, with a
the spiritual links between women and nature in Igorot
focus on race as the primary lens through which to view
culture. But the “introduction of high-yielding varieties of
oppressions, and animal rights-oriented ecofeminism.
rice seeds (HYV)” has disrupted women’s spiritual leader-
There are also those who consider themselves spiritual
ship roles (in Ruether 1996: 105). Finally, Sarah Mvududu,
ecofeminists, such as Starhawk, embracing the religious,
with the Women and Law in Southern Africa Research
Earth-goddess-based components of the position.
Project in Zimbabwe, claims “gender is also fundamental
Deep ecology and ecofeminism also engage in ideo-
in understanding human interaction with the environment
logical debates. Many ecofeminists count themselves as
and with respect to natural resources” (in Ruether 1996:
deep ecologists and many deep ecologists count them-
144). She explains this by analyzing Shona beliefs and
selves as ecofeminists, while others might designate
woodland management. Spirit mediums, often women, are
themselves as one but not the other. The background to the

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538
Ecofeminism – Historic and International Evolution
differences between some deep ecologists and some
spiritual/religious traditions and ecofeminism could per-
ecofeminists grew from the feminist critique of the andro-
sist. Ecofeminism and deep ecology may continue wran-
centric (male-centered) tendency of deep ecology in its
gling. Issues of racism, population growth and the valuing
earliest, and often militaristic or violent expressions, such
of some humans over others, or of all humans over other-
as those expounded upon in Edward Abbey’s The Monkey
than-human animals, will stir the thoughts and actions of
Wrench Gang. This approach has been dubbed eco-macho.
ecofeminists on a global scale. Charlene Spretnak provides
Specific philosophical discussions took place under the
one perspective that summarizes ecofeminist ideological
auspices of the journal Environmental Ethics. Karen
positions effectively: “An ontology based on dynamic and
Warren and Michael Zimmerman published essays in this
admittedly partial knowledge as well as awe toward the
journal in 1987, both of which made explicit connections
complexity of embodied and embedded existence would
between feminism and deep ecology. In 1989, Warwick
contribute substantially to the profound social transforma-
Fox’s essay “The Deep Ecology–Ecofeminism Debate and
tion that is needed” (in Warren 1997: 435).
Its Parallels” was published in the journal and followed
And Wangari Maathai, while speaking at the World
by a response by Deborah Slicer in 1995 entitled “Is there
Women’s Congress for a Healthy Planet in 1991,
an ecofeminism–deep ecology ‘debate’?” Though the
succinctly stated the activist positions of ecofeminism:
intricacies of the discussion cannot be expanded here,
“Things will not just happen. Women must do something”
recognition of this ongoing tension (i.e., whether or not
(in Gaard 1993: 3).
male–female dualism is the primary lens through which
to analyze and critique destructive power relations) is
Laura Hobgood-Oster
requisite. One interpretation of ecofeminism that shifts
this analysis is Val Plumwood’s Feminism and the Mastery
Further Reading
of Nature. Plumwood’s central relational model for
Abbey, Edward. The Monkeywrench Gang. New York:
abusive Western power structures is master–slave rather
Avon, 1975.
than male–female.
Adams, Carol, ed. Ecofeminism and the Sacred. New York:
Another area of ecofeminism that needs to be addressed
Continuum, 1993.
is the connection with animal rights activism, as noted
Baker-Fletcher, Karen. Sisters of Dust, Sisters of Spirit:
previously. Adams has made explicit links between andro-
Womanist Wordings on God and Creation. Min-
centric, patriarchal treatment of other-than-human
neapolis: Fortress Press, 1998.
animals, particularly focusing on the meat-producing
Daly, Mary. Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical
industries of the United States, and the exploitation of
Feminism. Boston: Beacon Press, 1978.
women. Her study, The Sexual Politics of Meat, pro-
Diamond, Irene and Gloria Feman Orenstine, eds. Reweav-
vides the foundation for this field of inquiry. Greta Gaard’s
ing the World: The Emergence of Ecofeminism. San
anthology Ecofeminism: Women, Animals, Nature
Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1990.
includes several essays that analyze the mutual oppres-
Gaard, Greta, ed. Ecofeminism: Women, Animals, Nature.
sions of women and nonhuman animals in patriarchal
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993.
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Griffin, Susan. Woman and Nature: The Roaring Inside
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Her. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1978.
founder, Marti Kheel, is also recognized as a leading
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McFague, Sallie. The Body of God: An Ecological Theology.
has referred to herself as an ecofeminist, though one who
Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.
is critical of much that is usually assumed as central to
Merchant, Carolyn. The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology
ecofeminism. Her books, Woman the Hunter and Gun
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SanFrancisco, 1980.
a predatory relationship with animals. Stange suggests
Nash, Kate. “The Feminist Production of Knowledge: Is
that the linkages between woman and other animals
Deconstruction a Practice for Women?” Feminist
sometimes made by ecofeminists could justify continued
Review 47 (Summer 1994).
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women and other animals. Thus she claims that the
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Plumwood, Val. Feminism and the Mastery of Nature. New
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tions and alliances will fade away or be replaced by more
Primavesi, Anne. From Apocalypse to Genesis: Ecology,
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Eco-justice in Theology and Ethics
539
Ruether, Rosemary Radford, ed. Women Healing Earth:
the mid-1970s, following the U.N. Stockholm Conference
Third World Women on Ecology, Feminism, and
on Environment and Development (1972). In response, the
Religion. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1996.
Nairobi Assembly of the World Council of Churches (1975)
Ruether, Rosemary Radford. New Woman/New Earth:
emphasized the need to establish a “just, sustainable, and
Sexist Ideologies and Human Liberation. New York:
participatory society” (JPSS). In his address to that
Seabury, 1975.
Assembly, Australian biologist Charles Birch explained:
Stange, Mary. Woman the Hunter. Boston: Beacon, 1998.
Sturgeon, Noel. Ecofeminist Natures: Race, Gender,
A prior requirement of any global society is that it
Feminist Theory and Political Action. New York:
be so organized that human life and other living
Routledge, 1997.
creatures on which human life depends can be sus-
Warren, Karen. Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature.
tained indefinitely within the limits of the earth.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997.
A second requirement is that it be sustained at a
See also: Adams, Carol; Christ, Carol; Christianity(7d) –
quality that makes possible fulfillment of human life
Feminist Theology; Christianity(7g) – Womanism; Daly,
for all people. A society so organized to achieve both
Mary; Gimbutas, Marija; Hunting Spirituality and
these ends we can call a sustainable global society in
Animism; Kenya Greenbelt Movement (and adjacent
contrast to the present unsustainable global society.
Wangari Maathai on Reforesting Kenya); Ruether,
If the life of the world is to be sustained and renewed
Rosemary Radford; Shiva, Vandana; Women and Animals.
. . . it will have to be with a new sort of science and
technology governed by a new sort of economics
and politics.
SP
Eco-justice in Theology and Ethics
After Nairobi, there was significant responsive activity
As planet Earth becomes hotter, stormier, less biologically
in ecumenical circles. A 1979 WCC-sponsored Conference
diverse, more crowded, unequal and violent, a growing
at MIT on “Faith, Science and the Future” pursued the
number of scholars in theology and ethics as well as
subject in more detail, and the next WCC Assembly
discerning leaders and members of churches on six con-
(Vancouver, 1983) focused on the theme: Justice, Peace,
tinents are joining the eco-justice movement. It involves
and Integrity of Creation. Even with these prominent
environmentally responsive Christians (along with
initiatives, it took at least another decade to gain wide
adherents of other world religions) who seek the well-
ecumenical acceptance of a fulsome eco-justice ethic that
being of Earth and people through practices and policies
features basic moral norms of: solidarity with other people
that serve ecological wholeness and social justice together
and creatures; ecological sustainability in development,
(ecology + justice).
technology and production; sufficiency as a standard of
organized sharing that requires floors and ceilings for
Stepping into an Ecumenical Stream
equitable consumption; and socially just participation in
When cultural historians look back at the last third of the
decisions about how to obtain sustenance and to manage
twentieth century with renewed appreciation for religion’s
community life for the good of all.
ambiguous power, they may see that religious leaders,
scholars, and organizations had to relearn from the ecolo-
Coordinated Environmental Engagement by U.S. Churches
gists that, in addition to the human species and culture,
In the United States the ecumenical environmental
nature in all its biodiversity is real and valuable. But his-
response has involved five emphases:
torians should also see that twentieth-century environ-
mentalism often lacked passion for, or adequate principles
Cultivating quality Eco-theology and Ethics
of, social justice. So, it was left to working groups of
It started with essays by forerunner Lutheran theologian
ecumenical theologians and socially engaged laity –
Joseph Sittler, and developed through the National
informed by the insights of environmental activists and
Council of Churches Work Group on “Faith-Man-Nature”
social ecologists, as well as by the Hebrew Bible’s Sabbath
formed in 1963–64 by biologist Philip Joranson. Promi-
sensibility and Covenant ethics – to emphasize that there
nent theologians such as Daniel Day Williams, H. Paul
will be little environmental health without social justice,
Santmire, John B. Cobb, and Rosemary Radford Ruether
and vice versa. Once the ecumenical movement came
soon added contributions. Roderick Nash tracked this
to this realization, its gatherings and leaders began to
early period in The Rights of Nature. But Nash did not
express an inclusive vision of eco-justice that seeks what
discern the beginnings of a theological bent toward eco-
is ecologically fitting and socially fair through democratic
justice ethics and action (exemplified by a popular 1971
decision making for the common good.
Friendship Press anthology entitled, A New Ethic for a
The global ecumenical movement and its member
New Earth). He also overlooked what the ecumenical
churches began to address the environmental challenge in
denominations actually said and did in proximity to the

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