A Review of the Literature on
English as a Second Language (ESL) Issues




The Language Research Centre—University of
Calgary


Prepared by:

John Archibald, Kara Bashutski, Yan Guo, Carly Jaques, Carla Johnson, Michelle
McPherson, Hetty Roessingh and Christine Shea





2008

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ALBERTA EDUCATION CATALOGUING IN PUBLICATION DATA

A review of the literature on English as a second language (ESL) issues /
prepared by John Archibald ... [et al.]

ISBN 978–0–7785–7495–8

1. English language – Study and teaching – Foreign speakers – Bibliography.
2. English language – Study and teaching as a second language – Bibliography.
I. Archibald, John. II. University of Calgary. Language Research Centre.
III. Alberta. Alberta Education.

PE1128.A2 A333 2008 428.24




Questions or concerns regarding this document can be addressed to the Director, Curriculum
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dial 310–0000.



















Copyright ©2008, the Crown in Right of Alberta, as represented by the Minister of Education. Alberta Education,
Curriculum Branch, 44 Capital Boulevard, 10044 – 108 Street, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T5J 5E6.

Every effort has been made to provide proper acknowledgement of original sources. If cases are identified where this
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Permission is given by the copyright owner to reproduce this document for educational purposes and on a nonprofit
basis, with the exception of materials cited for which Alberta Education does not own copyright.

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Table of Contents

Preamble
............................................................................................................................................ v

Part I:
Content and Curriculum for ESL Students ....................................................................... 1

Part II:
How Can Schools Best Identify ESL Students with Special Education Needs, Diagnose
Their Learning Needs and Provide Effective Programming? ........................................... 25
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 25
Intelligence (IQ) Tests ...................................................................................................... 26
Over-representation of ESL Learners in Special Education ............................................. 27
Under-representation of ESL Learners in Special Education ........................................... 30
Systemic Barriers to Assessment ...................................................................................... 31
Linguistic Considerations for Assessment ........................................................................ 34
Bilingual Assessment ........................................................................................................ 35
“Culture-fair” Models of Assessment ............................................................................... 36
Culturally Responsive Teaching ....................................................................................... 38
Cultural Sensitivity Training for Teachers ........................................................................ 41
Instructional Strategies for New Teachers ........................................................................ 44
Curriculum Reform ........................................................................................................... 46
Early Intervention for ESL Students at Risk for Reading and Learning Difficulties ....... 46
Explicit Reading Instruction Strategies ............................................................................. 47
Parental Involvement: Empowering Teachers and Parents ............................................... 48
Affective Factors ............................................................................................................... 52
A Sociocultural View of Learning .................................................................................... 52
Dyslexia ............................................................................................................................ 53
Visual Impairments/Hard of Hearing ................................................................................ 55

Part III:
ESL Students with Limited First Language (L1) Literacy Skills ..................................... 57

References ........................................................................................................................................... 67






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2008

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Preamble

The Language Research Centre at the University of Calgary was contracted by Alberta Education to
produce an annotated bibliography on diverse aspects of education related to English as a Second
Language (ESL) students. Part I deals with best practices when it comes to delivering content and
curriculum in the ESL classroom, Part II deals with meeting the needs of students with special needs in
the ESL community, and Part III addresses the question of how best to serve ESL students who have
limited literacy skills in their first language.


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PART I:
Content and Curriculum for ESL Students

Introduction

The following is a review of the literature that supports content-based language learning. The articles
and books reviewed here cover recent literature as well as a number of key contributions that date as
far back as the late 1980s. There are many commonalities between the earlier works and those of more
recent origins since the authors grapple with similar concepts. These early inquiries into content-based
language learning offer insights and discuss educational benefits in the areas of learning strategies,
thematic teaching, sheltered instruction, collaborative learning, use of comprehensible input and
concept development. The foundational literature is preoccupied with identifying areas of interest,
while the more contemporary resources approach these issues more pragmatically. More recent texts
read as “how-to” manuals for the classroom teacher.

A number of additional themes emerge within this body of literature. Common instructional strategies
are repeatedly cited as sound practice for the content-based language learning classroom. The
development and use of native language is seen as advantageous to both learner and teacher. The
learner builds cognitive resources and gains cultural knowledge, while the teacher is able to activate
prior learning and build background knowledge. Under the umbrella of comprehensible input, the use
of appropriate materials and visuals, modified language and scaffolding are discussed.

While commonalities do emerge, the field is divided regarding direct instruction. There are two
distinct camps, where one calls for direct instruction in all aspects of language, e.g., vocabulary,
structure and concepts, and the other posits that learners will acquire the language when actively
engaged in learning the content. While the line between the two approaches has been drawn, both sides
do agree that vocabulary development is key to content-based language learning and collaborative
active learning is essential in building language and content knowledge.

References
Alanis, I. (2004). Effective instruction: Integrating language and literacy. ERIC No. ED481649,
http://www.eric.ed.gov (Accessed March 17, 2008).

The authors believe that developing literacy skills is where the achievement gap is the most severe. To
narrow the gap, the following factors are identified and discussed.
• Classroom environment: an enrichment program that makes use of the native language, a natural
learning environment, a safe and trusting atmosphere, a classroom library with varied levels and
languages represented, student-generated books and group-constructed texts, and a home reading
program.
• Activating prior knowledge: teachers must bridge bicultural knowledge with embedded meaningful
and relevant language, and thematic units with visuals and games.
• Instructional approaches: focus on vocabulary development, e.g., reading aloud with discussion and
storytelling; writing, e.g., journalizing, interactive writing, real-life purposes for writing tasks; and
cooperative learning, e.g., flexible ability grouping for comprehensible motivating input.

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Also recommended, but not discussed, is continuity of instruction and incorporation of ESL standards
into learning objectives.

Bigelow, M., Ranney, S., & Dahlman, A. (2006). Keeping the language focus in content-based ESL
instruction through proactive curriculum-planning. TESL Canada, 24(1), 40–58.

The “connections model” is proposed as a framework for curriculum development in the
content-based classroom. The framework places emphasis on language, however the authors do
acknowledge that most planning must begin with content materials. This model is in response to the
authors’ perception that although, in many other content-based frameworks, the language objectives are
in the plans they are seldom addressed in practice. Deliberate attention is paid to language in the
connections model. The model is characterized as a triangle where each of its sides represents a key
element of content, functions and language structures with lexicalized grammar and text organization
being part of language structures. Each element is connected by a corner of the triangle representing
learning strategies. The model is intended to be flexible and dynamic, providing contextualized
language learning through a task-based approach.

Brinton, D. M., Snow, M. A., & Wesche, M. (2003). Content-based second language instruction. New
York, NY: Newbury House.

The authors examine the three approaches to content-based language instruction of thematic
instruction, sheltered classrooms and adjuncting. All three models suggest an integration of content
and language objectives where the form and sequence of language learning is dictated by the content
material. All three models account for language needs, incorporate target language, build on
background knowledge and provide an opportunity for meaningful language use. The following are
some key differences.
• Thematic instruction:
– content is presented in modules and the curriculum may be reorganized around broad concepts
– language teacher becomes the subject teacher
– there is a rich integration of skills and tasks
– many materials are teacher-created.
• Sheltered instruction:
– content is presented as isolated subjects
– the subject teacher becomes the language teacher
– speech and content materials are modified.
• Adjunct instruction:
– learners are enrolled simultaneously in two linked courses, one of these focuses on content and
the other on language.

The three models of delivery suggest a continuum that would enable students to move through the three
modes into mainstream courses. Thematic instruction is suggested for the first step. However, the
authors indicate this model is appropriate for all learner proficiency levels, moving from the sheltered
model for intermediate learners, to adjuncting for high-intermediate to advanced, before transitioning
into mainstream classrooms.

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Cary, S. (2000). Working with second language learners: Answers to teachers' top ten questions.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

This book places its emphasis on teaching strategies and the integration of the four language strands of
speaking, listening, reading and writing. Using a formulaic approach, each chapter attempts to answer
a basic teaching question; e.g., “How do I teach grade-level content to English beginners?” Each
question is presented, followed by a “readers’ guide” that provides details about the vignette and
succinct answers to the quandry. This guide is followed by a story from the classroom that presents the
pedagogical question as well as what teaching strategies could be used to deal with the classroom
challenge. A discussion and theoretical rationale is also presented. In broad statements the author
claims that learning language through content is highly effective and engaging provided the appropriate
teaching strategies are used. According to Cary, the ideal language learning classroom is
communicative, constructivist and collaborative. It draws on critical pedagogy, whole language
approaches, process writing and brain-based learning and supports the development of learning
strategies; i.e., Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA). In the chapter that
addresses teaching language in content classroom the need for engaging content, strategies, realia and
collaborative learning is stressed.

Chamot, A., & O'Malley, J. M. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic
language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

CALLA is a curriculum framework and instructional model for teaching language in the content areas.
The main focus of the framework is the learning process as opposed to teaching strategies. The
framework draws heavily on the theories of Cummins’ Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
(BICS)/Cognitive Academic Language Processing (CALP) model. CALLA endeavours to establish
high learner expectations, integrate CALP and content instruction, develop assessments consistent with
the modes of instruction and further professional development of teachers through the framework. The
theoretical framework is based on three principles:
• learning is active
• there are three types of knowledge—declarative, procedural and metacognitive
• students must become independent learners.

The framework emphasizes the importance of learning strategies, instruction of academic language
skills, scaffolding to content and building background knowledge. The authors posit that all teachers,
from science to language arts, can be language teachers through the use of the “language experience
approach” of using whole language, process writing, cooperative learning, cognitive instruction and the
development higher-order thinking skills.

Chamot, A., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, P., & Robbins, J. (1999). The learning strategies handbook.
White Plains, NY: Longman.

Learning strategies provide the foundational underpinnings of this work and the authors advocate that
they should form a significant part of any language learning lesson. Learning strategies, particularly
metacognitive strategies such as goal setting, self-evaluation, selective attention and organization, are
seen as the gateway to successful integration of language learners into mainstream classrooms. While
it is acknowledged that there are many learning strategies, the activation of background knowledge,

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cooperative learning, deductive reasoning, grouping of like information, inferencing, prediction,
imagery, note-taking, self-talk and summarizing are singled out as key. The use of graphic organizers
is integrated into all the various strategies that are mentioned. Although not a focus of the work, the
use of portfolios is suggested to best assess learner needs and progress. The authors advocate for a
learner-centered approach.

Coehlo, E. (2004). Adding English: A guide to teaching in multilingual classrooms. Toronto, ON:
Pippin.

This text is directed at classroom teachers in the K–12 system, either in ESL or mainstream classrooms.
Due to the intended audience, numerous strategies are discussed. General background information is
provided for establishing a supportive environment, such as “how English works,” e.g., phonology,
vocabulary, communicative competence and language learning theories, and how instruction can best
be structured to meet learner needs. The issue of language across the curriculum is addressed in detail
following the presentation of the general information. Strategies included in the discussion are:
• the use of key visuals; e.g., graphic organizers
• guided reading; e.g., pre-, during- and post-reading questions
• contextualized vocabulary and grammar; e.g., pre-teaching required vocabulary through word maps
or contextual guessing
• writing and project scaffolds; e.g., cloze, sentence combining, templates
• learning journals
• the use of alternate tasks; e.g., art, role playing
• the need for appropriate assessments and alternative resource materials.

Coppola, J. M. (2003). Meeting the needs of English learners in all-English classrooms: Sharing the
responsibility. In G. Garcia (Ed.), English learners: Reaching the highest level of English literacy
(pp. 182–196). Rowland Heights, CA: International Reading Association.

This article discusses a six-week study where the researcher observed literacy instruction in
mainstream classrooms of both native speakers and language learners. In addition to observations,
Coppola developed a short workshop to familiarize teachers with language teaching strategies and
support the collaboration of teachers across subject disciplines. The teachers participating in the
collaborative effort were also interviewed throughout the process. Strategies that these educators found
successful were the use of visuals to support comprehension, planned opportunities to practise
language, collaborative work such as small group projects and peer editing, and building background
knowledge. Educators reported being more satisfied with the level of inclusiveness in their classroom
as well as being better able to prepare learners for grade-level work through more planned language
tasks.

Crandall, J. (1994). Content-centered language learning. ERIC No. ED367142,
http://www.eric.ed.gov (Accessed March 17, 2008).

Crandall provides an overview of a number of language-through-content approaches that are currently
in the school system. “Content-based instruction” occurs when the language teacher uses content to
teach the language; “sheltered subject teaching” finds the content teacher modifying delivery to provide
comprehensible input for learners. This differs from “sheltered instruction,” which draws on modified
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Document Outline

• Publication Data
• Table of Contents
• Preamble
• Part I: Content and Curriculum for ESL Students
• Part II: How Can Schools Best Identify ESL Students with Special Education Needs, Diagnose Their Learning Needs and Provide Effective Programming?
  • Introduction
  • Intelligence (IQ) Tests
  • Over-representation of ESL Learners in Special Education
  • Under-representation of ESL Learners in Special Education
  • Systemic Barriers to Assessment
  • Linguistic Considerations for Assessment
  • Bilingual Assessment
  • Culture-fairŽ Models of Assessment
  • Culturally Responsive Teaching
  • Cultural Sensitivity Training for Teachers
  • Instructional Strategies for New Teachers
  • Curriculum Reform
  • Early Intervention for ESL Students at Risk for Reading and Learning Difficulties
  • Explicit Reading Instruction Strategies
  • Parental Involvement: Empowering Teachers and Parents
  • Affective Factors
  • A Sociocultural View of Learning
  • Dyslexia
  • Visual Impairments/Hard of Hearing
• Part III: ESL Students with Limited First Language (L1) Literacy Skills
• References

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