Ethical Issues : TEACHING RESOURCES : Building and Evaluating Ethical Arguments

Lesson Module III – Ethical Issues
Educators
Time
Copying optional handouts: 10 minutes
Ethical Issues
Doing activity: 40 minutes each of two days
III
Materials
If using the optional handouts, make enough copies for
the entire class of student handouts Learning More
About Ethics, Ethical Issues-1 on p. 157-159, and See
Part I
For Yourself: Ethical Arguments, Ethical Issues-2 on
p. 161-162. Make four copies of student handout See
TEACHING RESOURCES
For Yourself: A Matter of Ethics, Ethical Issues-3 on
p. 163-166.
Lesson Plan: Building and
Background for Educators
Evaluating Ethical Arguments
This lesson will familiarize students with the terms
used in the study of ethics and provide experience in
Science Content
building and evaluating ethical arguments. The skills
Students will acquire the skills needed to analyze ethical
learned in this lesson can be applied to any controver-
issues surrounding the use of molecular technology to
sial ethical issues.
select for specific genes.
Ethics can be defined as critical thinking about right
and wrong action. In this definition, the bolded words
Science Education Standards
are key concepts. Ethics involves careful, thoughtful
study of values, not just reliance on intuition or what
Science as Inquiry, Content Standard A
our friends think. The values being studied refer not to
– Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry
finances or money, but to figuring out what is ethically
(p. 175)
important and what makes actions ethically right or
– Understandings about scientific inquiry (p. 176)
wrong. The end goal of an ethical model is action-
oriented. It helps us determine what we ought to do.
Science in Personal and Social Perspectives, Content
Standard F
Developing the skills necessary to formulate and
– Personal and community health (p. 197)
evaluate ethical arguments can help people think
– Natural resources (p. 198)
through ethically controversial situations and help them
– Natural and human-induced hazards (p. 198)
develop and defend their own views on particular
– Science and technology in local, national, and
topics. The ethical arguments that students will
global challenges (p. 199)
construct in this lesson have three parts:
Source: National Science Education Standards, ©National Academy of
Empirical Claims + Ethical Claims =
Sciences, 1996. Used with permission. Page numbers refer to the
seventh printing, November 1999 – also available on the Internet at
Ethical Conclusion
http://books.nap.edu/html/nses/pdf/index.html
1.
Empirical claims are, or are said to be, statements
of fact. Statements about risks and benefits are
Science Process Skills
empirical claims. Statements about what some-
•
Relating
thing is made of or how something functions are
•
Inferring
empirical claims.
2.
Ethical claims are about ethical values, such as, “It
Life Skills
is good to respect the rights of others, care for the
•
Learning to learn
environment, promote human health, and reduce
•
Problem solving
poverty.” Ethical claims set forth what is good to
•
Decision making
do and what is bad to do in general and are not
•
Communicating
addressing a specific case.
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Educators
Lesson Module III – Ethical Issues
3.
The ethical conclusion is the specific course of
17. Currently, thousands of unused embryos leftover
action that should be followed, if the empirical
from IVF procedures are still frozen in fertility
claims and ethical claims are accepted as true. That
clinics around the country.
is when evaluation enters the picture. If a person
challenges the empirical claims or ethical claims
and does not accept them as true, the specific
Ethical Claims
course of action in the conclusion is likely to be
2.
PGD should not be used at all because of
rejected. In this lesson, students will be asked to
potential associated risks to embryonic
evaluate ethical arguments constructed by their
development.
fellow students.
3.
Using PGD to give birth to a donor for Molly is
The first two parts of an ethical argument, the empirical
the best thing that could have been done under
claims and ethical claims, are referred to as “claims” or
the circumstances.
“evidence.” The claims or evidence provide support for
the conclusion.
4.
In vitro fertilization (IVF) should not be used
because it results in extra human embryos that
end up being discarded.
Lesson Plan
5.
Science should be used to help cure illness.
Day One
6.
We should try to prevent childhood sickness
1.
Use the optional handout Learning More About
and death.
Ethics, Ethical Issues-1 on p. 157-159 or the
overhead transparency masters Ethics-a through
7.
Parents should be allowed to use PGD because no
Ethics-n beginning on p. 167 to introduce the
alternative cures are available right now.
terminology and concepts of ethics and ethical
arguments.
11. PGD should be used to select sibling donors
because it will cure many children currently
2.
Ask students to complete the handout See for
suffering from terminal illnesses.
Yourself: Ethical Arguments, Ethical Issues-2 on
p. 161-162 and discuss their answers.
12. The use of PGD to select sibling donors is unfair
to the person ultimately born as a result of
Answers to the handout:
the process.
Empirical Claims
13. We should never use a person merely as a means
1.
Fanconi’s anemia is a rare blood condition with
to improve the welfare of someone else.
no known cure.
15. We should not choose which children will live
8.
There are no proven risks to embryonic develop-
depending on whom they can help.
ment resulting from pre-implantation genetic
diagnosis (PGD).
18. Even when we know that we can do something,
we should still ask whether we should do it.
9.
PGD will benefit carriers of genetic diseases.
3.
Tell students that during the next class period, they
10. Many children suffer from diseases that could be
will construct their own ethical arguments.
treated by cells from a sibling donor.
Day Two
14. PGD gives parents unprecedented control over the
genetic attributes of their children.
1.
Divide the class into four groups. Give each group
16. PGD is a very expensive procedure.
a copy of optional student handout See for Yourself:
A Matter of Ethics, Ethical Issues-3 found on
p. 163-166.
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Lesson Module III – Ethical Issues
Educators
2.
Ask the students to read the scenario near the top
Possible claims for the “ethically wrong” argument
of the handout. Tell two of the groups that their
include the following, and student groups may
job is to construct an ethical argument that
think of others:
supports the ethical conclusion that Molly’s parents
were ethically right to use PGD to become preg-
Empirical Claims
nant with a potential donor for Molly. Tell the
• It has not been proven that PGD never harms
other two groups that their job is to construct an
embryonic development.
ethical argument that supports the ethical conclu-
sion that Molly’s parents were ethically wrong to
• IVF creates “extra” embryos that must be stored
use PGD to become pregnant with a potential
indefinitely or discarded.
donor for Molly.
• Adam would not have existed if his birth could not
Instruct all the groups that they should write as
help his sister.
many empirical and ethical claims as they can in
support of their assigned ethical conclusion.
• PGD could be used for non-medical purposes, such
Emphasize to the students that they do not have to
as selecting for desirable traits.
personally agree with the position that they have
been assigned in order to write a convincing ethical
Ethical Claims
argument. Give the groups about 10 minutes to
• We should not impose risks on one person merely
write their ethical arguments.
for the sake of benefit to someone else.
Possible claims for the “ethically right” argument
• It is wrong to create human embryos only to discard
include the following, and student groups may
them.
think of others:
• It is never ethical to treat a human being merely
Empirical Claims
as a means to help another person.
• Molly was ill with a fatal condition.
• Just because an action is legal does not make it
• PGD could select an embryo that would develop
ethically right.
into a healthy child who could donate umbilical
cord blood to help cure Molly.
3.
Ask the “ethically right” groups to exchange their
ethical arguments with the “ethically wrong”
• Neither in vitro fertilization (IVF) nor PGD has
groups. Instruct the groups to evaluate the validity
been shown to harm embryonic development.
of the arguments by completing the evaluation
section. Students will need to decide (1) whether
• It is legal to use PGD to select a donor child.
the empirical and ethical claims are true and
(2) whether the claims support the ethical
Ethical Claims
conclusion.
• Parents should try to help their sick children.
4.
At the end of the class period, ask the groups to
• Technology should be used to make people’s lives
share with the rest of the class their evaluation of
better.
the ethical argument they were assigned to critique.
• It is morally wrong not to help a sick child when it
is possible to do so.
For More Information
Bioethics at Iowa State University
• If an action is legal, it is ethically OK to do it.
http://www.biotech.iastate.edu/Bioethics/classroom_
resources.html
• Parents have a right to have children for many
reasons besides curing a sick child.
This site has a number of ethical case studies on a
variety of topics. Some of the case studies may not be
appropriate for high school use, so teachers should
preview a case study before using it.
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Lesson Module III – Ethical Issues
Student Handout
Ethical Issues-1
Learning more about . . .
Ethics
A Definition of Ethics
Action
Ethics can be defined as critical thinking about right
The end goal of studying an ethical question is action-
and wrong action. The three most important concepts
oriented. Thinking about ethics helps us determine
of this definition are:
what we ought to do, either personally or as a society,
from an ethical point of view. If a healthy environment
Critical Thinking
is an important value, actions that promote and protect
a healthy environment are more likely to be right than
Ethics involves careful, thoughtful study. Ethical study
actions that threaten a healthy environment.
does not rely on your intuition or just knowing what is
the right thing to do. When you are studying an ethical
question, you should not simply accept what your
A Model for Ethical Decisions
friends believe. Ethics is about determining for yourself
what is right and wrong.
A model is a framework that can be used to help
accomplish a task or clarify a situation. For example,
Right and Wrong
weather forecasters use computer-generated models of
When you are studying an ethical question, you are
air masses and their interactions to help predict the
thinking about values. These values are not about
weather. Soil scientists use models to clarify how rain
money or finances, but about whether an action is right
water moves through a crop field.
or wrong. Examples of things that people value include
cultural and religious freedom, honesty, and taking
In this activity, you will learn about a decision making
responsibility for their own actions. Because we value
model that can help you think through controversial
these things, it is generally a good inference that actions
issues that involve ethics and arrive at a decision. This
that promote and protect these values are right, and
model involves constructing an ethical argument.
actions that threaten these things are wrong.
In this case, the word “argument” does not mean a
disagreement. It means a logical presentation of the
facts leading to a conclusion, like the arguments given
by attorneys in a criminal trial. At the end of a trial, the
judge asks for the attorneys’ closing arguments. Each
Hey! That’s not the way to build an
attorney reviews the facts of the case and tries to
ETHICAL argument!
convince the judge or jury that those facts support
a conclusion about the innocence or guilt of the
accused person.
Constructing Ethical Arguments
An ethical argument has three parts. The first two parts
of the argument, the empirical claims and ethical
claims, are referred to as “claims” or “evidence.”
Empirical Claims + Ethical Claims =
Ethical Conclusion
1.
Empirical claims are facts, or statements that
someone wants you to believe are facts. Statements
about risks and benefits are empirical claims.
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Student Handout
Lesson Module III – Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues-1
Statements about what something is made of or
challenge if it is supported by several empirical and
how something functions also are empirical claims.
ethical claims.
2.
Ethical claims are claims about values, such as “It
is good to respect the rights of others, care for the
Evaluating Ethical Arguments
environment, promote human health, and reduce
Even though the genetic engineering example sounds
poverty.” Ethical claims set forth what is good to
like a reasonable ethical argument, let’s evaluate it.
do and what is bad to do in general and are not
Here are three steps to take in evaluating an ethical
addressing a specific case.
argument:
3.
The ethical conclusion is the specific action that
1. Do the claims support the
should be done, if the empirical claims and ethical
conclusion?
claims are accepted as true. That is when evalua-
tion enters the picture. If a person challenges the
If the empirical and ethical claims are true, does that
empirical claims or ethical claims and does not
give us good reason to accept the conclusion that we
accept them as true, the specific course of action in
should never do any genetic engineering? In this
the conclusion is likely to be rejected.
example, the conclusion is supported by the claims.
That is, if it is true that doing unnatural things is
Here is an example of four statements that can be used
unethical, and genetic engineering is an unnatural
to construct a simple ethical argument against genetic
thing, then it must be true that genetic engineering is
engineering:
unethical. It’s important to remember that claims can
support a conclusion even if not everyone agrees that
• We should never do any genetic engineering.
they’re true. In this step, we are only evaluating
whether the claims support the conclusion, not
• Genetic engineering moves genes
whether the claims are true.
between species.
2. Are the claims true?
• We should never do anything unnatural.
If the claims are not true, then the argument should not
lead us to accept the conclusion. In our example, could
• Moving genes between species is unnatural.
the empirical claims be challenged? The description of
genetic engineering is true, so it could not be success-
In this example, the second and fourth statements are
fully challenged. However, the claim that moving genes
the empirical claims. The third statement is the ethical
between species is unnatural could be challenged. A
claim. The first statement is the ethical conclusion.
possible challenge might involve asking, “What is
The finished ethical argument would look like this:
natural or unnatural? Viruses move genes between
species ‘naturally.’ Human beings are a part of nature,
• Moving genes between species is unnatural.
so maybe everything we do is natural.”
(empirical claim)
Could the ethical claim be challenged? A challenger
• Genetic engineering moves genes between
could question the claim that we shouldn't do unnatu-
species. (empirical claim)
ral things by asking, “Should we never drive cars, use
penicillin, or do surgery? Should we never have bred
• We should never do anything unnatural.
plants and animals to suit our purposes?”
(ethical claim)
3. Are there alternative actions or other
• We should never do any genetic engineering.
ethical values to consider?
(ethical conclusion)
While constructing and evaluating ethical arguments
This ethical argument used only two empirical claims
can be a helpful tool in ethical decision making, there
and one ethical claim to support a conclusion. Using
are other considerations. Before making a final decision
multiple empirical and ethical claims tends to
about what to do, a person should consider possible
strengthen an ethical argument. Assuming that the
alternative actions or ethical values other than those
claims are true, a conclusion is more difficult to
contained in the argument. Making an ethical decision
should involve examining as many sides of an issue as
possible before choosing a course of action.
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Lesson Module III – Ethical Issues
Student Handout
Ethical Issues-1
And the Point Is?
Ethical claims
General statements of values about what is right
By this time, you may be asking why you should bother
or wrong
to learn how to construct and evaluate ethical argu-
ments. Ethical arguments are a tool you can use for the
Ethics
rest of your life to help you think through controversial
Critical thinking about right and wrong action
issues and determine what actions you think are right.
Sometimes constructing an ethical argument can show
you inconsistencies between what you say you believe
(your ethical principles) and your actions. Sometimes
ethical arguments can help you decide what position to
Credit Note
take on an issue when you were undecided before. As
The information in this handout was provided and/or
you research the facts about an issue and carefully think
reviewed by Kristen Hessler, Bioethics Outreach
about your ethical principles, you will learn more about
Coordinator, Office of Biotechnology, Iowa State
the issue and about yourself.
University.
Learning how to evaluate an ethical argument takes
careful thought. People who want to convince you to
believe and act a certain way often present information
as “facts.” Knowing how to verify the truth of their
“facts” and how to understand the values involved in
their argument can help you decide whether you think
the action they are recommending is right or not.
Learn the Language
Claims
Empirical claims and ethical claims presented
as evidence to support the conclusion of an
ethical argument
Controversial issue
An issue for which there is strong disagreement
Critical thinking
Carefully evaluating the evidence offered in
support of a claim
Empirical claim
Information presented as truth that often can be
independently verified
Ethical argument
… and justice for all
A framework for making ethical decisions consist-
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in
all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin,
ing of empirical claims and ethical claims that
gender, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and
support taking a specific action
marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.)
Many materials can be made available in alternative formats for ADA
clients. To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Office of Civil
Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and Independence Avenue,
Ethical conclusion
SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call 202-720-5964.
The specific action recommended in an ethical
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and
argument – what people should do relating to a
June 30, 1914 in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Stanley R. Johnson, director, Cooperative Extension Service, Iowa State
specific problem or issue
University of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.
Iowa State University Extension and ISU Office of Biotechnology
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Lesson Module III – Ethical Issues
Student Handout
Ethical Issues-2
See for yourself . . .
Ethical Arguments
Building and Evaluating Ethical Arguments
Ethics is different from science because we cannot test the truth of statements about ethics in a laboratory. But this
does not mean that people should not try to support their ethical views as best they can. For example, if people tell
you that you have an ethical duty to support or not to support the use of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, those
people should be able to back up their claims with good evidence.
In doing so, they should offer two different kinds of
evidence: empirical claims and ethical claims. Empirical
claims are, or are presented as if they are, facts about
the world. Ethical claims are claims about ethical
values. “We ought to respect other people's rights” is an
ethical claim.
Instructions
Read the following scenario that is based on a real-life
controversy about whether it is ethical to use pre-
implantation genetic diagnosis to select for a cell donor
for an existing child. After reading the scenario, read the
numbered statements on the next page. Using what you
have learned about empirical claims, ethical claims, and
ethical conclusions, categorize the statements by writing
the number of each statement in the appropriate column.
Scenario
A couple in Minnesota gave birth to their first child, Molly, in 1996. Molly was diagnosed with Fanconi’s anemia, a
rare blood condition with no known cure. Sufferers of Fanconi’s anemia usually die in their 20’s.
Molly’s parents used in vitro fertilization (IVF) to conceive their next child. Once IVF had produced several em-
bryos, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis was used to screen them both for absence of Fanconi’s anemia and also for
suitability as a donor for Molly. Molly’s younger brother, Adam, was born in 2001, and his umbilical cord blood was
used for an infusion that cured Molly.
Was it ethical for Molly’s parents to use PGD to produce a sibling donor for Molly?
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Student Handout
Lesson Module III – Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues-2
Using what you have learned about empirical claims and ethical claims, categorize the statements by writing the
number of each statement in the appropriate column below.
1.
Fanconi’s anemia is a rare blood condition with no known cure.
2.
PGD should not be used at all because of potential associated risks to embryonic development.
3.
Using PGD to give birth to a donor for Molly is the best thing that could have been done under the circum-
stances.
4.
In vitro fertilization should not be used because it results in extra human embryos that end up being discarded.
5.
Science should be used to help cure illness.
6.
We should try to prevent childhood sickness and death.
7.
Parents should be allowed to use PGD because no alternative cures are available right now.
8.
There are no proven risks to embryonic development resulting from pre-implantation genetic diagnosis.
9.
PGD will benefit carriers of genetic diseases.
10. Many children suffer from diseases that could be treated by cells from a sibling donor.
11. PGD should be used to select sibling donors because it will cure many children currently suffering from
terminal illnesses.
12. The use of PGD to select sibling donors is unfair to the person ultimately born as a result of the process.
13. We should never use a person merely as a means to improve the welfare of someone else.
14. PGD gives parents unprecedented control over the genetic attributes of their children.
15. We should not choose which children will live depending on whom they can help.
16. PGD is a very expensive procedure.
17. Currently, thousands of unused embryos leftover from IVF procedures are still frozen in fertility clinics around
the country.
18. Even when we know that we can do something, we should still ask whether we should do it.
Empirical Claims
Ethical Claims
… and justice for all
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender,
religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Many materials
can be made available in alternative formats for ADA clients. To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W,
Whitten Building, 14th and Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call 202-720-5964.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Stanley R.
Johnson, director, Cooperative Extension Service, Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.
162
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Lesson Module III – Ethical Issues
Student Handout
Ethical Issues-3
See for yourself . . .
A Matter of Ethics
The Nash Case
In this activity, you will practice building and evaluating ethical arguments. Your group's job is to read the following
scenario and build an ethical argument supporting the ethical conclusion that your teacher assigns to your group.
Write your assigned ethical conclusion and your claims under the appropriate underlined headings below. Use
another sheet of paper if you need more space. Do not write anything under the Evaluation section for now.
Scenario
A couple in Minnesota gave birth to their first child, Molly, in 1996. Molly was diagnosed with Fanconi’s anemia, a
rare blood condition with no known cure. Sufferers of Fanconi’s anemia usually die in their 20’s.
Molly’s parents used in vitro fertilization (IVF) to conceive their next child. Once IVF had produced several em-
bryos, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis was used to screen them both for absence of Fanconi’s anemia and also for
suitability as a donor for Molly. Molly’s younger brother, Adam, was born in 2001, and his umbilical cord blood was
used for an infusion that cured Molly.
Was it ethical for Molly’s parents to use PGD to select for a healthy donor for Molly?
Ethical Argument
Built by (names of group members)___________________________________________________________________
Empirical Claims
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Student Handout
Lesson Module III – Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues-3
Ethical Claims
Ethical Conclusion
Evaluation
Evaluated by (names of group members)______________________________________________________________
1.
What empirical claims, if any, do you challenge and why?
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