Fibromyalgia Syndrome:
A Clinical Case Definition
and Guidelines for
Medical Practitioners
An Overview of the Canadian
Consensus Document
Bruce M. Carruthers
Marjorie I. van de Sande
Fibromyalgia Syndrome:
A Clinical Case Definition and Guidelines for Medical Practitioners
An Overview of the Canadian Consensus Document
Bruce M. Carruthers, M.D., C.M., FRCP(C)
Marjorie I. van de Sande, B. Ed., Grad. Dip. Ed.
© Copyright 2005 by Carruthers, B. M., and van de Sande, M. I.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced, utilized, or transmitted in any form, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any means whatsoever without
written permission from the authors. In our efforts to make physicians aware of the Consensus Document and ensure
that patients receive an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment in a timely fashion, the authors may consider requests
to reproduce this booklet providing ALL of the following conditions are met: This booklet must be reproduced in its
entirety, with no additions, deletions, or changes to the booklet and its contents in any manner whatsoever;
no profit can be made by any individual, organization, company, university, or otherwise; and the authors are
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conditions and indicate how you intend to use the booklet.
The preparation of this work has been undertaken with great care to publish reliable data and information. However, the
authors are not responsible for any errors contained herein or for consequences that may ensue from use of materials or
information contained in this work. This work does not endorse any commercial product.
National Library of Canada CataloguinginPublication Data:
Fibromyalgia Syndrome: A Clinical Case Definition and Guidelines for Medical Practitioners. An Overview of the
Canadian Consensus Document. Bruce M. Carruthers and Marjorie I. van de Sande
ISBN: 0973933518
Soft cover, alkaline paper. Includes authors’ affiliations, table of contents, 1. Fibromyalgia (FMS) – Clinical
Definition/Diagnostic Criteria, 2. Clinical Guidelines, 3. Diagnosis, Differential, 4. Treatment Guidelines.
References. Copyright 2005 by Carruthers, B. M., and van de Sande, M. I.
Published by: Carruthers & van de Sande.
Correspondence to: Dr. Bruce M. Carruthers, email: bcarruth@telus.net
#2, 3657 West 16 Ave, Vancouver, B.C. V6R 3C3, Canada
Requests for reprint permission to: Marjorie van de Sande, email: mvandes@shaw.ca
151 Arbour Ridge Circle NW, Calgary, AB T3G 3V9, Canada
Cover design by Robert J. van de Sande.
Pictures on cover (top to bottom): 1. fMRI indicates a greater number and extent of pain relevant brain regions in
response to painful stimuli and represent some but not all regions of pain relevant activity. 2. SPECT scan indicates
significant reduced regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in the pontine tegmental. This reduced rCBF suggests less
nerve cell activity, an objective neurological abnormality. 3. Substance P molecule 4. SPECT scan indicates significant
hypoperfusion (denoted by lighter shading) of rCBF in the right thalamic region of the brain. The subject’s right is the
reader’s left. 5. fMRI indicates greater activity in the contralateral anterior insular cortex in response to painful stimuli.
(Note: It is unclear at this time whether the responses indicated in 1 and 5 are specific to FMS patients or apply in general
to painful conditions.)
This booklet is an overview of
Fibromyalgia Syndrome: Canadian Clinical Working Case Definition,
Diagnostic and Treatment Protocols A Consensus Document
Anil Kumar Jain, Bruce M. Carruthers, CoEditors. Marjorie I. van de Sande, Stephen R. Barron,
C.C. Stuart Donaldson, James V. Dunne, Emerson Gingrich, Dan S. Heffez, Frances YK Leung,
Daniel G. Malone, Thomas J. Romano, I. Jon Russell, David Saul, Donald G. Seibel.
Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain 11(4):3107, 2003. Copublished simultaneously in “The Fibromyalgia
Syndrome: A Clinical Case Definition for Practitioners”, pp. 3108, 2004. Editor: I. J. Russell ISBN: 0789025744.
© Haworth Medical Press Inc. Copies of the book are available from Haworth document delivery service:
18007225857
docdelivery@haworthpress.com
http://www.HaworthPress.com
Affiliations of Authors of the Canadian Consensus Document for FMS
Dr. Jain and Dr. Carruthers are CoEditors of the FMS Consensus Document
Anil Kumar Jain, B Sc, MD: Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Bruce M. Carruthers, MD, CM, FRCP(C): Specialist in Internal Medicine, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
Marjorie I. van de Sande, B Ed, Grad Dip Ed: Consensus Coordinator, Director of Education (now
Advisor), National ME/FM Action Network, Canada
Stephen R. Barron, MD, CCFP, FCFP: Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Family Practice, Faculty
of Medicine, University of British Columbia; Medical Staff, Royal Columbian Hospital, New Westminster,
British Columbia, Canada
C. C. Stuart Donaldson, Ph D: Director of Myosymmetries, Calgary, AB, Canada
James V. Dunne, MB, FRCP(C): Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Medicine, University of British
Columbia; Vancouver General and St. Paul’s Hospitals, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Emerson Gingrich, MD, CCFP (C): Family practice, retired, Calgary, AB, Canada
Dan S. Heffez, MD, FRCS: President, Heffez Neurosurgical Associates S.C.; and Associate Professor of
Neurosurgery, Rush Medical College, Chicago, Illinois, USA
Daniel G. Malone, MD: Associate Professor of Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin, USA
Frances YK Leung, B Sc, MD, FRCP(C): Clinical Lecturer, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto;
Department of Rheumatology, Sunnybrook and Women’s College Health Science Centre; Department of
Medicine, Saute Area Hospitals, Ontario, Canada
Thomas J. Romano, MD, Ph D, FACP, FACR: Diplomate and President of the Board of Directors of the
American Academy of Pain Management; Editorial Board and Columnist for the Journal of
Musculoskeletal Pain; Advisory Panel, Health Points/TyH Publications; East Ohio Regional Hospital,
Martins Ferry, Ohio, USA
I. Jon Russell, MD, Ph D, FACR: Associate Professor of Medicine, Division of Clinical Immunology;
Director, University Clinical Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio,
Texas, USA; Editor, Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain; International Pain Consultant to Pain Research &
Management, The Journal of the Canadian Pain Society, London, ON; Editorial Board of Pain Watch;
Honorary Board Member of the Lupus Foundation of America
David Saul, MD, CCFP(C): Private practice, North York, Ontario, Canada
Donald G. Seibel, B Sc (Med), MD, CAFCI: Meadowlark Pain Clinic, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Acknowledgements for the Canadian Consensus Document
Lydia Neilson, MSM, President, and the National ME/FM Action Network, for spearheading the drive for the
development of a clinical definition, and diagnostic and treatment protocols for FMS. National ME/FM
Action Network, Canada www.mefmaction.net
Health Canada, for establishing the “Terms of Reference” and selecting the Expert Consensus Panel
Crystaal, for sponsoring the Expert Consensus Panel Workshop without any direct involvement
Kim Dupree Jones, RNC, Ph D, FNP, exercise physiologist, for her contribution to the exercise section
Kerry Ellison, OT (nonpracticing),for her contribution to the patient management/treatment, and
assessing occupational disability appendix
Hugh Scher, LLP, for his contribution to the assessing occupational disability appendix
Additional Acknowledgements for this Overview
Expert Consensus Panel for FMS, for reviewing this overview.
Robert J. van de Sande, B Sc EE, for the cover design and formatting of the booklet
Pictures on Cover (Reprinted with permission): fMRI scans: Cook DB, Lange G, Ciccone DS, Liu WC,
Steffener J, Natelson BH. Functional imaging of pain in patients with primary fibromyalgia. Journal of
Rheumatology 31(2):36478, 2004 (pp. 372 & 373); PET scans: Kwiatek R., Barnden L, Tedman R,
Jarrett R, Chew J, Rowe C, Pile K. Regional cerebral Blood flow in fibromyalgia. Arthritis & Rheumatism
43(12):28232833, Dec. 2000 (pg. 2828).
Judi A. Brock, MA, for proofreading
CONTENTS
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANADIAN FMS CONSENSUS DOCUMENT
iv
INTRODUCTION
1
Classification
1
Etiology
1
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Prevalence
1
Natural Course
1
DIAGNOSTIC GUIDELINES
1
CANADIAN CLINICAL WORKING CASE DEFINTION
2
Application Notes
3
General Considerations in Applying the Clinical Case Definition
3
SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS
3
1. Pain and Neurological Symptoms
3
2. Neurocognitive Manifestations
6
3. Fatigue
6
4. Sleep Disturbance
6
5. Autonomic Manifestations
7
6. Neuroendocrine Manifestations
7
7. Stiffness
8
8. Other Associated Signs
8
Features of FMS in Young People
9
CLINICAL EVALUATION OF FMS
9
Concurrent Conditions
11
Differential Diagnosis
11
Differences Between FMS and ME/CFS
11
Differences Between FMS and Psychiatric Disorders
11
TREATMENT GUIDELINES
12
Goals and Therapeutic Principles/Guidelines
12
SELFPOWERED LIFEWORLD ADJUSTMENTS & SELFHELP STRATEGIES 12
SELFPOWERED EXERCISES FOR FMS PATIENTS
13
SYMPTOM MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT
15
1. Pain
15
2. Fatigue
15
3. Sleep Disturbance
16
4. Neurocognitive Manifestations
16
5. Autonomic Manifestations
16
6. Neuroendocrine Manifestations
16
Supplements and Herbs
17
APPENDICES
1. Symptom Severity and Hierarchy Profile
18
2. Sleep and Pain Profile
19
3. Assessing Occupational Disability
20
REFERENCES
22
Fibromyalgia Syndrome
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANADIAN CONSENSUS DOCUMENT FOR FMS
The National ME/FM Action Network of Canada
spectrum of the pathogenesis of the illness, as well
spearheaded the drive for the development of an
as to provide diagnostic and treatment protocols for
expert
consensus
document
for
Fibromyalgia
medical practitioners. The members of the panel
Syndrome (FMS). In response to increasing numbers
would have autonomy over their consensus
of patients inquiring about doctors knowledgeable
document.
concerning FMS, the Network sent a questionnaire to
doctors across Canada asking what items would be
Health Canada selected an Expert Consensus Panel
most helpful in assisting them with their FMS
for FMS. The thirteenmember Expert Consensus
patients. The physicians concurred that a clinical
Panel received more than forty nominations,
definition, and diagnostic and treatment protocols,
including
numerous
nominations
from
each
were of prime importance.
stakeholder group. The members of the Consensus
Panel represented clinicians, university medical
The National ME/FM Action Network then approached
faculty, and researchers in the area of FMS.
two clinicians knowledgeable about FMS and
Collectively, the members of the panel had
experienced in its diagnosis and treatment. Dr. Bruce
diagnosed and/or treated more than twenty
Carruthers of British Columbia and Dr. Anil Jain of
thousand FMS patients.
Ontario kindly agreed to coauthor a draft document.
Lydia Neilson, President of the National ME/FM Action
Health Canada planned for a Consensus Workshop
Network, met with the Honourable Alan Rock, then
to be held on March 30 to April 1, 2001. Crystaal
Minister of Health, to discuss the results of the
(Biovail Pharmaceuticals) funded the workshop
doctors’ survey and the draft document. The
without having any involvement with or influence
Honourable Alan Rock responded by stating the draft
over the Consensus Document. They hired Science
clinical definition was “a milestone in the fight against
and Medicine Canada to organize and facilitate the
this complex and tragic condition”.
workshop.
Health Canada established the “Terms of Reference”.
The draft document went through three rounds of
One stipulation was that at least one member of the
revisions prior to the Consensus Workshop where
panel had to be nominated by each of the five
the document received consensus, in principle, with
stakeholder groups of government, universities,
directives for various members to revise some
clinicians, industry, and advocacy. There were to be
sections. The document was compiled by Marjorie
at least ten members on the panel, four of whom
van de Sande and the revised document was sent to
could come from outside of Canada. Panel members
the panel. There was 100% consensus by the panel
had to be practicing MDs actively treating and/or
members on the final Consensus Document. The
diagnosing FMS, or MDs or Ph Ds involved in clinical
Consensus Document has become known as the
research of the illness.
Their mandate was to
“Canadian Consensus Document for FMS”.
develop a clinical definition that addressed a broader
Importance of a Clinical Definition
The Greek origin of syndrome is syn– together, and drome a track for running. One must determine the
tracks of travel and observe the travel of a patient’s syndrome components. Because research definitions
define a static collection of symptom entities, they have ignored or downplayed the critical dynamic features
of this syndrome, as lived by patients. The normal pain/fatigue pattern directly related to felt causal action
and adjusted in activity/rest rhythms is broken in FMS. The breakdown in the activity/rest rhythm pattern
results in cumulative pain and physical and cognitive fatigue. It is important for the clinician to observe the
dynamics of the whole cluster of symptoms in their interaction, additive effects, and the disruption to patients’
lives over periods of time.
iv
Carruthers, van de Sande
A Clinical Case Definition and Guidelines for Medical Practitioners
INTRODUCTION
In response to the demand for a clinical definition of
large group of softtissue pain syndromes, implying
fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS), the Expert Consensus
that a systemic process involves the musculoskeletal
Panel, selected by Health Canada, established clinical
system globally. Compelling evidence of physiological
criteria that encompass the potential pathophysio
and biochemical abnormalities identifies FMS as a
logical dysfunctions, and developed an integrative
distinct pathophysiological clinical disorder.
approach to the diagnosis and treatment of FMS 1 .
Etiology
Classification
Before the onset of FMS, most patients enjoyed an
The prominent feature of FMS is chronic, widespread
active, healthy lifestyle. There is consistent
musculoskeletal pain, but it is usually accompanied
documentation that a physical trauma, particularly a
by numerous other multisystemic dysfunctions.
whiplash or spinal injury, can trigger FMS in some
Fibro refers to the fibrous tissue, myo refers to the
patients. Other associated physical traumas include
muscles and algia refers to pain. Fibromyalgia is
surgery, repetitive strain, childbirth, viral infections
assigned number M79.0 and is classified as non
and chemical exposures. A genetic predisposition
articular
rheumatism
in
the
World
Health
may be suggested in cases where more than one
Organization’s International Classification of Diseases
separated family member is afflicted. Some cases of
(ICD). FMS is in the “generalized” category of the
FMS have a gradual onset with no obvious cause.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Prevalence
fewer neurotransmitters that decrease pain signals
Epidemiological studies indicate between 2 and 10
than males. A PET study suggests that when
percent of the general population, or between
endogenous tryptophan is depleted, there is only a 7
600,000 and 3 million Canadians, have FMS. It is
fold drop in the synthesis of serotonin in males but
two to five times more prevalent than rheumatoid
there is a dramatic 42fold drop in the synthesis of
arthritis. A Canadian study 2 suggests that 3.3% or
serotonin in females 5 . Both the direction and
one million of noninstitutionalized adult Canadians
magnitude of the brain’s response to pain differs in
have FMS. A prevalence study 3 of randomly selected
males and females, with females being more
schoolaged children suggests that 6.2% meet the
sensitive to pain 6 .
criteria for FMS. It affects all age groups, including
children,
all
racial/ethnic
groups,
and
all
Natural Course
socioeconomic strata. There is a higher prevalence
An eightyear multicentre study suggests that
in females. The generally more flexible, delicate
generally once FMS has been established, patients do
skeletons, less massive muscles, and narrower spinal
not improve symptomatically and there is a slight
canals of females may make them more prone to
worsening of functional disability 7 . A 15 year study 8
neck and spinal injuries. A whiplash injury study
indicates that all patients in the study still have FMS
suggests those with persistent symptoms have a
but there is some variation in symptom severity.
significantly
narrower
cervical
spinal
canal
Individual prognosis must remain a clinical estimate
(particularly females) 4 . Females produce more
because the prognosis for an individual patient
neurotransmitters that increase pain signals and
cannot be predicted accurately with certainty.
DIAGNOSTIC GUIDELINES
The Expert Consensus Panel adopted the
spectrum
of
the
potential
symptomatic
1990 American College of Rheumatology
expressions of FMS to form a clinical working
criteria, which have good sensitivity and
case definition.
specificity, and also included a broader
An Overview of the Canadian Consensus Document
1
Fibromyalgia Syndrome
CANADIAN CLINICAL WORKING CASE DEFINITION OF FMS
The two compulsory pain criteria (adopted from the American College of Rheumatology 1990 Criteria *9 ) are
merged with Additional Clinical Symptoms and Signs to expand the classification of FMS into a Clinical
Working Case Definition of FMS.
___ 1. Compulsory HISTORY of widespread pain. Pain is considered widespread when all of the
following are present for at least three months:
___ pain in both sides of the body
___ pain above and below the waist (including low back pain)
___ axial skeletal pain (cervical spine, anterior chest, thoracic spine or low back). Shoulder and
buttock involvement counts for either side of the body. “Low back” is lower segment.
___ 2. Compulsory PAIN ON PALPATION at 11 or more of the
following 18 tender point sites:
___ Occiput (2): at the suboccipital muscle insertions
___ Low cervical (2): at the anterior aspects of the
intertransverse spaces (the spaces between the
transverse processes) at C5 – C7
___ Trapezius (2): at the midpoint of the upper border
___ Supraspinatus (2): at origins, above the scapular spine
near its medial border
___ Second rib (2): just lateral to the second costochondral
junctions, on the upper rib surfaces
___ Lateral epicondyle (2): 2 cm distal to the epicondyles
(in the brachioradialis muscle)
___ Gluteal (2): in upper outer quadrants of buttocks in the
anterior fold of muscle
___ Greater trochanter (2): posterior to the trochanteric
prominence
___ Knee (2): at medial fat pad proximal to the joint line
FMS Tender Points (TrPs)
___ 3. Additional Clinical Symptoms and Signs: In addition to the compulsory pain and tenderness
required for research classification of FMS, many additional clinical symptoms and signs can
contribute importantly to the patients’ burden of illness. Two or more of these symptoms are
present in most FMS patients by the time they seek medical attention. On the other hand, it is
uncommon for any individual FMS patient to have all of the associated symptoms or signs. As a
result, the clinical presentation of FMS may vary somewhat, and the patterns of involvement may
eventually lead to the recognition of FMS clinical subgroups. These additional clinical symptoms and
signs are not required for research classification of FMS but they are still clinically important. For
these reasons, the following clinical symptoms and signs are itemized and described in an attempt to
expand the compulsory pain criteria into a Clinical Case Definition of FMS:
___ Neurological manifestations: Neurological difficulties are often present such as hypertonic
and hypotonic muscles; musculoskeletal asymmetry and dysfunction involving muscles,
ligaments and joints; atypical patterns of numbness and tingling; abnormal muscle twitch
response,
muscle
cramps,
muscle
weakness,
and
fasciculations.
Headaches,
temporomandibular joint disorder, generalized weakness, perceptual disturbances, spatial
instability, and sensory overload phenomena often occur.
___ Neurocognitive manifestations: Neurocognitive difficulties usually are present. These
include impaired concentration and shortterm memory consolidation, impaired speed of
performance, inability to multitask, easy distractibility, and/or cognitive overload.
___ Fatigue: There is persistent and reactive fatigue accompanied by reduced physical and mental
stamina, which often interferes with a patient’s ability to exercise.
___ Sleep disturbance: Most FMS patients experience nonrefreshing sleep. This is usually
accompanied by sleep disturbances including insomnia, frequent nocturnal awakenings,
nocturnal myoclonus, and/or restless leg syndrome.
* Compulsory ACR criteria reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. See reference 9.
2
Carruthers, van de Sande
A Clinical Case Definition and Guidelines for Medical Practitioners
___ Autonomic and/or neuroendocrine manifestations: These manifestations include cardiac
arrhythmias, neurally medicated hypotension, vertigo, vasomotor instability, sicca syndrome,
temperature instability, hot/cold intolerance, respiratory disturbances, intestinal and bladder
motility disturbances with or without irritable bowel or bladder dysfunction, dysmenorrhea, loss
of adaptability and tolerance for stress, emotional flattening, lability, and/or reactive
depression.
___ Stiffness: Generalized or even regional stiffness that is most severe upon awakening and
typically lasts for hours usually occurs, as in active rheumatoid arthritis. Stiffness can return
during periods of inactivity during the day.
Jain AK, Carruthers BM, coeditors; van de Sande MI, et al. Fibromyalgia Syndrome: Canadian Clinical Case Definition, diagnostic and
treatment protocols – A Consensus Document. Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain 11(4):3107, 2003. Copublished simultaneously in “The
Fibromyalgia Syndrome: A Clinical Case Definition for Practitioners”. © Copyright 2004 Haworth Press. Available at Document Delivery
Service: 18007225857 docdelivery@haworthpress.com http://www.HaworthPress.com Reprinted with permission.
Application Notes
· Validity of the two compulsory pain criteria for
·
Digital palpation examination is performed with
the purposes of research study yielded 88.4%
an approximate force of 4 kg/1.4 cm 2
sensitivity and 81.1% specificity.
(standardize on a weight scale), which will
· Focus of the clinical definition: The following
partially blanch the blood from under the
hourglass diagram indicates the steps in first
thumbnail. The patient must state that the
narrowing the compulsory criteria to establish FMS
palpation was painful to be considered “positive”.
and then expanding the spectrum of symptoms
“Tender” is not considered “painful”.
and signs and the distress they can cause to
establish the total illness burden.
History of Widespread Pain Lasting at Least Three Months
i
11 or More of 18 Tender Points Present
i
FMS
i
Screen for Additional Symptoms & Signs
i
Determine Total Illness Burden of Fibromyalgia Syndrome
General Considerations in Applying the
interactions and the effects of aggravators
Clinical Case Definition
should be noted.
·
Determine the patient’s total illness burden
·
Quantify the severity of major symptoms,
by assessing all of the patient’s symptoms and
and their impact on lifestyle.
When the
their impact on the patient’s lifestyle demands,
symptom severity and severity hierarchy profile
occupations, etc.
chart is completed every six months or so, it will
·
Coherence of symptoms: Symptoms should fit
help orient treatment, assess its effectiveness,
a pattern that is identifiable as FMS.
and assist in assessing prognosis and disability.
·
Identify
secondary
symptoms
and
Impact on lifestyle should be compared to the
aggravators.
Symptom dynamics and
patient’s premorbid health and activity level.
Symptoms and Signs
1. Pain and Neurological Manifestations
body organs systems is emerging. Functional
A comprehensive biological model suggesting
Imaging studies support the theory that many
dysregulation among the central nervous system
signs and symptoms of FMS originate from
(CNS), autonomic nervous system (ANS), and
dysfunction of the CNS and altered processing of
An Overview of the Canadian Consensus Document
3
Fibromyalgia Syndrome
sensory input 10 . Indications of thalamic 11 and
nociceptive process. A PET study indicated that
caudate hypoperfusion in SPECT scan analysis 12
when endogenous tryptophan was depleted, the
of FMS patients are further supported by similar
drop in the synthesis of serotonin was 7fold in
findings using PET scans in chronic neuropathic
males and a dramatic 42fold in females 5 . The
pain states 13 . However, a study 11 aligning a MRI
combination of elevated levels of some pro
scan, to enable precise anatomic localization, over
nociceptive agents (amplifying pain signals), such
a SPECT scan showed a reduction of regional
as findings of an approximate threefold elevation
cerebral blood flow (rCBF) within the pontine
of substance P (SP) in the cerebral spinal fluid
tegmentum. This finding suggests reduced nerve
(CSF) 19 , and deficiencies in some antinociceptive
cell
activity,
an
objective
neurological
agents (suppressing signal transmission of
abnormality. The precise location of this deficit
noxious stimuli), such as free plasma tryptophan,
previously was not known to be part of a well
allow elevated levels of pain signals to be sent to
known system in the brain stem that modulates
and from the brain and body. This theory is
pain signals traveling up the spinal cord, through
supported by the inverse correlation of elevated
the brain stem to the higher centers of the brain.
levels of CSF SP, which lowers the threshold of
PET scan analysis of skeletal muscle in the
synaptic excitability resulting in increased pain
paralumbar spine suggests a significantly lower
signals and sensitization and functions in both the
metabolic rate of glucose utilization, an increased
central and peripheral nervous systems, and
glucose backflow from tissue into the vascular
hypoperfusion of the thalamic and caudate
space, and a markedly reduced rate of
nuclei 12,20 , which are involved with processing
phosphorylation in FMS patients 14 . A fMRI study
nociceptive stimuli. Elevated levels of nerve
identified consistent involvement of the thalamus,
growth factor in the CSF, which may be
caudate nuclei, sensory cortex, prefrontal cortex,
associated with the growth of SPcontaining
occiput and cerebellum in response to painless
neurons and involved in neuroplasticity, have
and painful stimuli 15 . Another fMRI study 16
been found in patients with primary FMS but not
indicated
that
the
FMS
group
exhibited
in those with associated pain conditions 21 . Zinc
significantly greater activity in the prefrontal,
and/or magnesium deficiency may influence
supplemental
motor,
insular
and
anterior
increased excitability of NmethylDasparate
cingulated cortices in response to nonpainful,
(NMDA) receptors 22 . In animal experiments on
warm stimuli and greater activity in the
constricted or injured spinal cords, there was
contralateral insular cortex in response to painful
increased production of dynorphin A.
stimuli. There was also greater activity in
prefrontal, supplemental motor, insular, and
The pain of FMS may be described as burning,
anterior cingulated cortices in response to
searing, sharp, shooting, stabbing, throbbing,
nonpainful, warm stimuli. MRIs indicated that a
deep aching, tingling, feeling bruised all over,
subset of patients diagnosed with FMS had
aching in bones, exhausting, etc. or any
cervical stenosis 17 . A qEEG spectral assessment 18
combination of these. Pain and fatigue may be
suggests
FMS
patients
with
the
least
induced by exercise and there is a slow recovery
psychological distress and experienced pain had
period. Myofascial trigger points are commonly
the greatest Alpha power and relatively little
found in FMS patients and myofascial pain
Theta. Those with the greatest psychological
syndrome (MPS) should be considered a
distress and experienced pain had the greatest
concomitant diagnosis.
Theta
power
and
relatively
little
Alpha.
a. Characteristics of FMS Pain
Decreased delta activity in both patient groups
· Allodynia is a reduced pain threshold
may be associated with reduced deep restorative
from a stimulus which would not normally
sleep and thus can distinguish FMS from
be painful.
myofascial pain syndrome (MPS) 18 .
· Hyperalgesia is an abnormally high
sensitivity and perceived greater intensity
Chronic generalized pain may be primarily a
of pain to a stimulus that would be
central
nervous
system
phenomenon,
an
expected to produce some pain.
abnormality in the brain’s sensory perception and
· Persistent pain: The duration of pain
processing of pain, even though the onset may
from a stimulus is longer than would be
be related to a peripheral event. Neurochemical
expected.
factors may play an important role in the
· Pronounced summation effect and
amplification and distortion of pain signals in the
afterreaction to a painful stimulus often
4
Carruthers, van de Sande
A Clinical Case Definition and Guidelines for Medical Practitioners
occurs.
occur.
· Hyperalgesia
in
skin:
Affected
· Leg cramps occur in approximately 40%
dermatomes produce more pain when a
of patients 23 .
pin is drawn across the skin.
· Generalized stiffness: Studies suggest
· Tenderness: Pain that does not radiate
that morning stiffness of more than 15
to a distant site may be experienced on
minutes duration occurs in 79% 24 to
palpation of tender points and is
83% 25 of patients. Stiffness can reoccur
independent of widespread pain. Tender
during the day, usually after periods og
points are generally where ligaments,
nonactivity.
tendons, and muscles attach to the bone.
· Chronic headache: Approximately 50
60% 24,25 of patients experience severe
Muscles, ligaments, tendons, fascia, and the
tension headaches involving cervical and
periosteum are sensitive to pain. Injuries to
shoulder
girdle
muscle
contraction.
ligaments, such as a whiplash injury, can
Migrainelike headaches may occur and
overstretch
and
fray
their
cablelike
may be preceded by visual disturbances.
structure. Ligaments are difficult to heal
· Temporomandibular joint disorder is
because they have a poor blood supply,
common and is usually caused by chronic
particularly where they attach to the bone.
contraction of the muscles involved in the
Lax ligaments allow the joint to move beyond
joint movement in FMS patients.
its normal range of motion, which compresses
or irritates sensory nerves, and causes pain,
c. Other neurological manifestations
numbness and/or tingling. The muscles
Mismanagement of sensory information may
around the joint tend to react to these pain
be due to dysfunction of neurotransmitters/
signals
by
contracting
and
becoming
receptors and abnormal gating (the process
chronically taut in their attempts to stabilize
whereby the prefrontal cortex assigns relative
the joint and prevent further damage.
importance to sensory input) resulting in
dysregulation of the signal to noise ratio 26 .
b. Other Features of FMS Pain
This dysregulation may result in a lower
· Widespread pain:
Pain that is felt
tolerance of noxious stimuli.
bilaterally, as well as above and below the
· Hypersensitivity to vibration
waist, is considered widespread. A soft
· Positive Romberg test
tissue injury, such as a whiplash injury,
· Abnormal
tandem
gait
and
may initiate local or regional pain that over
interference aggravation. Even when
the
course
of
months
becomes
tandem gait and serial 7 subtraction test
generalized, widespread pain with positive
results
are
normal
when
done
tender points. This suggests that FMS
independently,
many
patients
have
involves
abnormalities
in
the
pain
difficulty or are unable to do them
processing
interaction
between
the
concurrently.
peripheral and CNS.
· Abnormal twitch response associated
· Nonanatomical distribution: Global or
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