How to Write a Thesis: A Working Guide

How to Write a Thesis:
A Working Guide
R Chandrasekhar
Australian Research Centre for Medical Engineering (ARCME)
The University of Western Australia
35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
chandra@arcme.uwa.edu.au
Written: 24 Feb 2000; Revised: 30 April 2002
Contents
1
Introduction
3
1.1
What is a thesis and why write one?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1.2
Di?erences between the undergraduate and postgraduate theses . . . . . .
4
2
Structure
5
2.1
Thesis structure at UWA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
2.2
Rationale for structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
2.3
The hypothesis underpins the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
2.4
Does an engineering thesis need a hypothesis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
3
Substance
8
3.1
Begin at the beginning: keep records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
3.2
Write with the reader in mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
3.3
Think-Plan-Write-Revise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.4
Attikiouzel’s aphorisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.5
Lindsay’s laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.6
Hartmann’s hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.7
Cobbling together your ?rst draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.8
The Experimental Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.9
The Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.10 The Introduction and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.11 Linking your chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.12 The Summary or Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.13 Writing other parts of your thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17

---

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
Contents
3.14 Polishing up your thesis
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.15 The time element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.16 Do’s and Don’ts in Science and Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
4
Style: Language
18
4.1
The craft of writing good English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
4.2
Ambiguity and Clarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
4.3
Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
4.4
Brevity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
4.5
Examples of what to avoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
4.6
Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
4.7
The I/We Active/Passive controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.8
Examples of good writing
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.9
Spelling and grammar
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
5
Style: Layout
27
5.1
Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.2
Word Processor vs Markup Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.3
Diagrams, Graphs and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.4
Table of Contents, Bibliography and Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
6
Conclusions
28
7
Acknowledgements
29
References
29
Quick Reference Guide
32
Abstract
This is a short guide on how to write a thesis at both the undergraduate and
postgraduate levels. It is aimed at students of engineering and science. A thesis
may be analysed into three S’s: structure, substance and style. Structure confers
logical coherence; substance, signi?cance and depth; and style, elegance and appeal.
State your hypothesis clearly, ensuring that it is both reasonable and testable.
Keep meticulous records and write up rough drafts of your work as you go along.
Begin writing your thesis proper with the experimental chapters. Progress to the
literature review, introduction and conclusions. Write the summary or abstract last,
after writing the conclusions.
Write clearly and directly, with the reader’s expectations always in mind. Lead
the reader from the known to the unknown. Write clearly, precisely and brie?y.
Think, plan, write, and revise. Follow layout guidelines and check spelling and
grammar. Re-read, seek criticism, and revise. Submit your best e?ort as your
completed thesis.
2

---

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
1
Introduction
1
Introduction
This is a working guide on writing a thesis. It is intended to assist ?nal year and post-
graduate students in Electrical/Electronic/IT Engineering at the Centre for Intelligent
Information Processing Systems (CIIPS), and the Australian Research Centre for Medi-
cal Engineering (ARCME), at The University of Western Australia (UWA). The guide is
divided into three main parts:
I Structure;
II Substance; and
III Style
The structure of a thesis is governed by logic and is invariant with respect to subject. The
substance varies with subject, and its quality is determined by the technical knowledge
and mastery of essentials exhibited by the student. Style has two components: language
and layout. The former deals with the usage of English as a medium of sound technical
communication; the latter with the physical presentation of the thesis on paper, according
to the requirements laid out by UWA. All three components—structure, substance and
style—in?uence one another. A good thesis will not be found wanting in any of these
three1.
1.1
What is a thesis and why write one?
thesis/"Ti:sIs/ n 1 a proposition to be maintained or proved. 2 a dissertation esp. by a
candidate for a degree. [Middle English via Late Latin from Greek = putting, placing, a
proposition, etc.] [1]
hypothesis/h2I"p6TI:sIs/1 a proposition made as a basis for reasoning without the as-
sumption of its truth. 2 a supposition made as a starting point for further investigation
from known facts. [Late Latin from Greek hypothesis ‘foundation’; Greek hypo ‘under’] [1]
One might infer from the etymology above that a thesis is an (obligatory) o?ering
placed at the desk of the examiner by a candidate who wishes to get a degree. This is
the most common, and often only, reason why a thesis is written. But there are other
reasons for writing a thesis.
A thesis is a written record of the work that has been undertaken by a candidate. It
constitutes objective evidence of the author’s knowledge and capabilities in the ?eld of
interest and is therefore a fair means to gauge them. Although thesis writing may be
viewed as an unpleasant obligation on the road to a degree, the discipline it induces may
have lifelong bene?ts.
1This guide does not cover the earlier phases, such as selecting a supervisor and research topic, doing
a literature search etc., nor does it give advice on how to do research, except as it pertains to writing a
thesis.
3

---

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
1
Introduction
Most of all, a thesis is an attempt to communicate. Science begins with curiosity,
follows on with experiment and analysis, and leads to ?ndings which are then shared with
the larger community of scientists and perhaps even the public. The thesis is therefore
not merely a record of technical work, but is also an attempt to communicate it to a larger
audience.
1.2
Di?erences between the undergraduate and postgraduate
theses
The di?erences between the undergraduate and postgraduate theses is one of degree2
rather than kind. They share a common structure and need for logical rigour. It is only
in the substance and the emphasis placed on it that the di?erences arise. Speci?cally,
UWA requires that:
A PhD thesis shall be a substantial and original contribution to scholarship, for
example, through the discovery of knowledge, the formulation of theories or the
innovative re-interpretation of known data and established ideas [2].
An undergraduate thesis is, at present, graded on the quality of research, the signi?-
cance of the contributions and the style of presentation.
Thus, the undergraduate thesis is judged on a similar basis to the postgraduate one.
Indeed, the three most commonly cited qualities that earn an undergraduate thesis the
?rst class grade are originality, independence, and mastery [3].
Candidates writing a higher degree thesis—and the PhD thesis in particular—are
required to present their research in the context of existing knowledge. This means a
thorough and critical review of the literature, not necessarily limited to the narrow topic
of research, but covering the general area. The PhD candidate should also show clearly
what original contributions she or he has made [2]. Although neither of these requirements
applies strictly to undergraduate work, the candidate should demonstrate familiarity with
previous relevant work in his or her thesis.
In short, a thesis—whether undergraduate or postgraduate—is evidence of the can-
didate’s capacity to carry out independent research under the guidance of a supervisor,
and to analyse and communicate the signi?cant results of that work. The candidate
for higher degrees must demonstrate, in addition, mastery of the literature and indicate
clearly which is his or her original work, and why it is signi?cant3.
2Pun unintended!
3Contrary to custom elsewhere in the world, the candidate for a master’s or doctoral degree at UWA
is generally not required to make an oral presentation and defence of her or his work. By contrast,
the ?nal-year Electrical/Electronic/IT Engineering student is required to make an oral presentation that
contributes a small percentage to the total marks for the thesis.
4

---

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
2
Structure
2
Structure
2.1
Thesis structure at UWA
The UWA PhD regulations [4] give the following format for the doctoral thesis:
1. Title page: gives the title of the thesis in full, the candidate’s names and degrees, a
statement of presentation in the form ‘This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy of the University of Western Australia’, the department and year of submission.
2. Summary or Abstract—of approximately 300 words. (It should not exceed 700 words.)
The Abstract or summary should summarize the appropriate headings, aims, scope and
conclusion of the thesis.
3. Table of Contents
4. Acknowledgements
5. Main Text
6. Bibliography or References
7. Appendices
The format of the undergraduate thesis is similar, except that the title page is followed
by a letter from the candidate addressed to the Executive Dean of the Faculty of Engi-
neering and Mathematical Sciences saying ‘This thesis is submitted in partial ful?lment of
the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (with Honours)’ and certifying
that it represents the candidate’s own work.
The thesis proper consists of the Main Text, numbered 5 above. If we zoomed in on
the Main Text, we should see something like this [5, p 110]:
(a) Chapter 1: Introduction
(b) Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
(c) Chapter 3: Materials and Methods
(d) Chapters 4 to n: Experimental Chapters
(e) Chapter (n + 1): General Discussion or Conclusions
If we now zoomed in on any Experimental Chapter (labelled (d) above), we should
expect to see [5]:
i. A brief introduction
ii. Experimental procedure (methods and materials)
iii. Results
iv. Discussion
5

---

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
2
Structure
This structure re?ects the time-honoured format of science experiments:
I. Aim
II. Materials and Methods
III. Observations
IV. Results
V. Discussion
VI. Conclusions
We have just dissected the structure of a (scienti?c or engineering) thesis but have we
obtained any insights in return?
2.2
Rationale for structure
The rationale for the structure in section 2.1 is simply that a thesis must tell a story
clearly and convincingly. The components of the structure impart logical continuity to
the thesis in much the same way that links in a chain confer on it integrity and strength.
There is a ?ow in the logic, as shown in Table 1, which is adapted from [6, p 131]:
Introduction/Aim
What did you do and why?
Materials and Methods
How did you do it?
Observations/Results
What did you ?nd?
Discussion
What do your results mean to you and why?
Conclusions
What new knowledge have you extracted from your experiment?
Table 1: This table shows the relationship between the structure of an experimental chapter
in a thesis, and its underlying logic.
Any ?aw in the reasoning or gap in the logic will be easily spotted if this structure
is strictly followed. Thus, the structure of the thesis is designed to enforce logical and
scienti?c rigour and make it easy to read. Follow the structure and you can be sure that
you are telling your story in the right order. But what exactly is your story?
2.3
The hypothesis underpins the thesis
The hypothesis is all important. It is the foundation of your thesis. It gives coherence
and purpose to your thesis. Go back to section 1.1 to review the meaning and etymology
of this word. If it is hard to grasp what hypothesis means, these explanations might help:
• The hypothesis de?nes the aim or objective of an experiment, that if some likely
but unproven proposition were indeed true, we would expect to make certain obser-
vations or measurements.
6

---

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
2
Structure
• A hypothesis is an imaginative preconception of what might be true in the form of
a declaration with veri?able deductive consequences [7, p 18].
• Hypotheses are the larval forms of theories [7, p 20].
• ‘In every useful experiment, there must be some point in view, some anticipation of
a principle to be established or rejected’; such anticipations are hypotheses [7, John
Gregory quoted by Medawar, p22].
Indeed, the great French physiologist, Claude Bernard, has written:
A hypothesis is . . . the obligatory starting point of all experimental reasoning.
Without it, no investigation would be possible, and one would learn nothing:
one could only pile up barren observations. To experiment without precon-
ceived ideas is to wander aimlessly. [7, p 30]
Your hypothesis must ?t the known facts4 and be testable. To comply with the ?rst, you
must have read the literature. To comply with the second, you must do the experiment.
This is why the hypothesis is central to scienti?c investigation [5].
If you ?nd time, read an account of the famous Michelson-Morley experiment [8] to
understand that if hypothesis and experiment are in con?ict, it is experiment that prevails
and hypothesis that falls. If an experiment shows that a hypothesis is incorrect, then that
hypothesis must be erroneous, no matter how attractive. Moreover, failure of a hypothesis
may lead to a re-examination of assumptions, refutation of shaky theories, and ultimately
to new knowledge, as happened in this case.
2.4
Does an engineering thesis need a hypothesis?
Hypotheses may be relevant to science theses, but are they relevant to engineering the-
ses? Because engineers invent rather than discover, does an engineering thesis need a
hypothesis?
Yes, all the more so, because invention is a more tightly directed activity than discov-
ery; and the two are not mutually exclusive anyway! I prefer the word hypothesis: that
which underlies a thesis; you may be more familiar or comfortable with aims or objectives.
The hypothesis is the electromotive force or emf for your thesis.
Suppose your project involves using Arti?cial Neural Networks (ANNs), in conjunction
with appropriate hardware, to sort good apples from bad. The hypothesis for this project
may be, ‘It is possible to sort good apples from bad using ANNs and suitable hardware’.
Note that implicit in your hypothesis is a de?nition of acceptable levels of accuracy (how
do you quantify the words ‘possible’, ‘good’, and ‘bad’ ?).
Suppose that on completing your project, you discovered that the system you had
devised works well with green apples, but not with red ones. You would have discovered
new knowledge and would be able to suggest a revised hypothesis as the starting point
4But you should not be afraid to explore the unknown. If the “known fact” that “atoms are indivisible”
had not been challenged, we would not have known of electrons, let alone quarks.
7

---

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
3
Substance
for further investigation. Your own project would have demonstrated5 the correctness of
a hypothesis like ‘It is possible to sort good green apples from bad green apples, with an
accuracy of better than 90%, using ANNs and suitable hardware’.
Never forget that underlying every thesis, there must be a hypothesis. It is what your
story is all about. If you keep your hypothesis in view, you will never stray into irrelevance
when writing your thesis, which is what we look at next.
3
Substance
3.1
Begin at the beginning6: keep records
The content of your thesis is being continuously gathered throughout the period of your
project/research. Remember this and keep clear, well-annotated records in your “CIIPS
Research Record Book”. You can a?ord to be wordy and repetitive here, because you
do not want to be lost when you refer to it later on. Because it is a running record of
experiment and observation, its only requirement is ?delity; not subsequent correctness.
Michael Faraday was an experimental scientist par excellence. His diary of his re-
searches can serve very well as a model of how your own research record book should be
like. For example, in one volume of his diaries [10], he has recorded the following:
• freehand drawings of experimental setups [pp 248–9]. You should do the same; your
diagrams in your record book need not be works of art: save that for the thesis!
• his accurate description of what he believed he was perceiving:“It still smelt strongly
of Electricity” [p 200]. The italics are his. Today we may hide a smirk if anyone
talks about smelling electricity; but remember that these are the observations of a
scienti?c pioneer. Do not be afraid to record your perceptions accurately.
• his own questions to himself: “Can induction through air take place in curves or
round a corner?” [p 420]. Such questions serve to clarify your own thoughts and to
steer further work.
In summary, your record book is where you record your thoughts, perceptions and mea-
surements, using words, numbers and pictures, as and when they are still fresh in your
mind.
Plan your experiments so that one experiment has only one hypothesis. Many exper-
iments may together shed light on a larger, unifying hypothesis.
Assuming that your experimental work is going well, the spectre of writing it up, so
that it looks like a thesis, still looms ahead. How do you do that?
In the following sections, we take a look at some guidelines on how to write well. This
is followed by advice from some experienced UWA professors on how to write a good
5Philosophers of science contend [7] that a hypothesis cannot be proved conclusively, but only falsi?ed.
We will steer clear of this controversy here.
6“Begin at the beginning,” the King said gravely, “and go on till you come to the end: then stop.”
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll [9, p 158]
8

---

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
3
Substance
thesis. The material that follows is the core of this working guide: so pay attention to it
and try to understand it thoroughly.
3.2
Write with the reader in mind
All communication involves two parties: the sender of the message and the receiver; in
written communication, they are the writer and the reader. If you write with the reader in
mind you are more likely to communicate successfully. To ?x this concept in your mind, I
will introduce two analogies from electrical engineering with which you must be familiar:
1. the maximum power transfer theorem: [11, p 432] The transfer of power from a
source to a load is maximum if the load impedance is the complex conjugate of the
source impedance (see Figure 1). The matching of source and load impedances for
maximum power transfer to occur is analogous to matching the writer’s technique
to the reader’s expectations for maximum communication to occur.
2. there are no re?ections on an ideal, lossless transmission line if it is terminated with a
load that is equal to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line [12, p 355].
The re?ections at the end of a transmission line are like the reader’s confusion at
what the writer intended to convey; such confusion is minimized again by matching
what the reader expects with what the writer provides.
ZS
+
Z L
VS
-
Figure 1: Maximum power is transferred from the source VS if the load impedance ZL is the
complex conjugate of the source impedance ZS, i.e., if ZL = Z? [11, p 432].
S
Gopen and Swan [13] have written an excellent article introducing scienti?c method
into scienti?c writing. They claim that readers have certain implicit expectations about
what to encounter and when, each time they read a sentence. If the writer matches these
expectations, communication takes place easily; otherwise confusion or misinterpretation
results. They exhort the writer to write so as to match the reader’s expectations. The
reader should not waste the e?ort that would go into understanding the substance of
the writing, in trying to guess what the writer intended to mean. Although they warn
that “there can be no ?xed algorithm for good writing”, they give seven sound generic
guidelines that are worth re-stating here [13]:
1. Follow a grammatical subject with its verb, as soon as possible.
9

---

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
3
Substance
2. Place in the position of importance (stress position) the “new information” you
want the reader to emphasize in his or her mind.
3. Place the person or thing whose story is being told at the beginning of a sentence
in the topic position.
4. Place appropriate “old information” (material discussed earlier) in the topic position
to provide linkage with what has gone before and context for what is to come later.
5. Make clear the action of every clause or sentence in its verb.
6. Provide context for your reader before asking him or her to consider anything new.
7. Match the emphasis conveyed by the substance with the emphasis anticipated by
the reader from the structure.
In summary, match the reader’s expectations by constructing sentences skilfully. Lead
the reader from the known to the unknown. Write with the reader in mind: this is usually
the examiner, but do not forget the poor student who gets to continue your project the
next year. If your thesis is not clear enough, he/she may be condemned to repeat your
work before making further progress, losing valuable time in the process.
3.3
Think-Plan-Write-Revise
Think. Plan. Write. Revise. This is the cycle advocated by Barrass [6] in his short but
very useful book on scienti?c writing. Messy thinking leads to messy writing: cluttered,
obscure and uninviting. Think and plan before you write and revise.
Writing is not a linear process but a cyclic one. What appears ?rst may be written
last, with the bene?t of hindsight and a uni?ed perspective. But, where does one start;
how does one revise, and how many times? As an entr´
ee, let us listen to those with
experience.
3.4
Attikiouzel’s aphorisms [14]
1. Start writing early. Do not delay writing until you have ?nished your project/research.
Write complete and concise “Technical Reports” as and when you ?nish each nugget
of work. This way, you will remember everything you did and document it accu-
rately, when the work is still fresh in your mind. This is especially so if your work
involves programming.
2. Spot errors early. A well-written “Technical Report” will force you to think about
what you have done, before you move on to something else. If anything is amiss,
you will detect it at once and can easily correct it, rather than have to re-visit the
work later, when you may be pressured for time and have lost touch with it.
10

---