Image, Word, Action: Interpersonal Dynamics in a Photo-Sharing ...

CYBERPSYCHOLOGY & BEHAVIOR
Volume 11, Number 5, 2008
© Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/cpb.2007.0153
Image, Word, Action: Interpersonal Dynamics
in a Photo-Sharing Community
John Suler, Ph.D.
Abstract
In online photo-sharing communities, the individual’s expression of self and the relationships that evolve among
members is determined by the kinds of images that are shared, by the words exchanged among members, and
by interpersonal actions that do not specifically rely on images or text. This article examines the dynamics of
personal expression via images in Flickr, including a proposed system for identifying the dimensions of imag-
istic communication and a discussion of the psychological meanings embedded in a sequence of images. It ex-
plores how photographers use text descriptors to supplement their images and how different types of com-
ments on photographs influence interpersonal relationships. The “fav”—when members choose an image as
one of their favorites—is examined as one type of action that can serve a variety of interpersonal functions. Al-
though images play a powerful role in the expression of self, it is the integration of images, words, and actions
that maximize the development of relationships.
Introduction
The purpose of this research was to explore the interper-
sonal dynamics of image, word, and action in the popular
IN THE PAST, the primary method of online communication photo-sharing community known as Flickr. Three methods
was typed text. In fact, typed text via e-mail, chat, instant
were employed in gathering observations. In the tradition of
messaging, discussion boards, social networks, and blogging
participant-observation and ethnographic methodologies, I,
has evolved into a highly sophisticated and unique form of
as a member of Flickr for several years, immersed myself in
dialogue.1 However, with the increasing availability of high-
the community, relying on an epistemological oscillation be-
speed Internet connections, visual images have become in-
tween an objective observation of social phenomena and my
creasing popular as a tool for self-expression. This shift pro-
subjective experience of interpersonal dynamics—a method-
vides a unique opportunity for the psychological study of
ology that I previously described in my research on the
online imagistic communication.
Palace multimedia chat community.3 I also conducted in-
Psychological theory has long advocated a basic distinc-
depth e-mail interviews with volunteers from Flickr, as well
tion between language and visualizations as two basic cog-
as facilitated group discussions among visitors. These dis-
nitive systems for managing memories, processing informa-
cussions often took place in reaction to images that I used to
tion, and self-expression. Whereas the verbal system tends
illustrate ideas about photo-sharing. Because this research
to involve thinking that is more linear, conceptual, con-
focused on imagistic communication, I felt it was important
sciously controlled, and reality-based, the visual or mental
to use images to convey ideas and stimulate discussion
imagery system tends to be more holistic, emotional, per-
rather than rely on verbal discussions alone. I organized
sonal, imaginative, symbolic, and influenced by the uncon-
these images into two collections, also called “sets”: The Cy-
scious.2 This distinction between imagery and verbal func-
berPsychology of Flickr and Photographic Psychology.4,5
tioning, as well as personal preferences and strengths in
visual versus verbal thinking, can help explain why people
Establishing a Cyberpsychological
choose online environments that emphasize visual commu-
Niche and Equilibrium
nication and how people interact in these environments. In
addition to image and text, a third type of online communi-
With millions of members, many millions of images, and
cation is interpersonal action: a person may perform a specific
thousands of groups devoted to various photography top-
act as an expression of interpersonal meaning without rely-
ics, Flickr confronts each member with an overwhelming
ing on language or images.
ocean of visual stimulation and possibilities for interpersonal
Department of Psychology, Rider University, Lawrenceville, New Jersey.
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SULER
encounters. Although members may find these limitless pos-
For all of these reasons, a person’s photostream—the se-
sibilities exciting, they must at some point develop specific
quence of images uploaded to Flickr—acquires a specific vi-
strategies for establishing their presence and identity and for
sual and thematic style, distinct from those of other mem-
limiting and managing their interpersonal relationships.
bers, whether the person consciously intends this or not.
Members are challenged to a establish a cyberpsychological
The uploading of the image to Flickr is an act of “going
niche in which they, both consciously and unconsciously, reg-
public” with this visual shaping of the self. It is a process of
ulate and define themselves, as well as their relationships,
making the intrapersonal interpersonal. Sharing one’s pho-
with that niche and the corresponding self-definition being
tography may become a form of validation in which the per-
expressed in the members’ behaviors regarding image, text,
son hopes others will find the personal meaning and facets
and action. That niche, in order to develop and thrive, must
of identity that the photographer created in the image.
reach a stage of ongoing dynamic synergy between experi-
Knowing others can see the image gives it more emotional
mentation and restraint—a cyberpsychological equilibrium in
power. It feels more “real.” As in art therapy, the process of
which new opportunities for image, text, and action are
creating an image can be a therapeutic process of self-insight,
tested, assimilated if successful, and discarded if not.
emotional catharsis, the working through of conflicts, and
The niche one establishes is partly determined by the pur-
the affirmation of identity. Going public with the image may
pose the member assigns to his or her participation in Flickr.
enhance that process. Flickr groups devoted to specific psy-
People who join the community as a way to share, with fam-
chological problems—such as depression and bipolar disor-
ily and friends, their life experiences via photographs have
ders—exemplify these therapeutic qualities of image cre-
a predetermined niche. They may not progress any further
ation and sharing.
into the larger community. However, if they find themselves
Due to the time restraints many people feel while visiting
becoming interested in the art and science of photography,
numerous photostreams, they quickly browse images to see
they may be drawn into the wider culture of members who
which ones catch their attention. It is a state of perception
are photography students, aficionados, and professionals,
reminiscent of “evenly hovering attention” as described by
and so are challenged to define the artistic, technical, and so-
Freud.6 Members describe how some images instantaneously
cial dimensions of their niche.
“grab” them. They may feel speechless, unable to verbalize
Some members experience a conflict between different
why the image affects them. They immediately sense a con-
views about the purpose of Flickr. Is it a place to express
nection to the photograph and, at least to some extent, to the
oneself via images, learn about photography, and/or social-
photographer. The image draws them in, while other images
ize? Some members approach Flickr as a competitive game
in the photostream go barely noticed. A powerful image
in which the popularity of an image is determined by how
speaks for itself, although viewers also engage in a process
many times it is viewed, how many people indicate it as a
of projecting their own personal meaning into it, so that it
“favorite” (fav), and its overall “interestingness” as deter-
becomes a type of nonverbal transitional space7 between the
mined by an undisclosed formula created by the designers
viewer and the photographer, with its meaning created by
of Flickr. A member’s cyberpsychological niche and equilib-
both.
rium—including how one manages images, text, and ac-
Visual styles vary greatly among members. An effective
tions—is influenced by one’s commitment to either the so-
system for identifying them would need to consider the fol-
cial, educational, artistic, or gaming activities of the
lowing factors: (a) the subject matters captured in the image;
community and by a sometimes difficult juggling of these
(b) shooting and postprocessing techniques; (c) the visual
various agendas.
characteristics of the image resulting from such techniques,
as interpreted psychologically, for example, by Exner’s sys-
The Image
tem for analyzing perceptual responses to the Rorschach
inkblots;8 (d) the psychological and emotional issues por-
On its own, without elaboration by text or action, the im-
trayed in the image, as classified, for example, according to
age can be a powerful vehicle for communication. Many
the seven basic emotions identified by Ekman.9
members describe how the visual aspects of the world are
important to them and how they try to capture it in their
Image Sequence
photography. The image is a way to store memories of what
is important in one’s life, shape personal meaning, and give
Images occur in a sequence that reflects member’s lives
expression to ideas, experiences, and emotions that may not
and changes in their perceptions, thoughts, and emotions
be easily verbalized. Although everyone does not con-
over time. The sequence can resemble a stream of con-
sciously experience it as such, the image is an extension of
sciousness. It may change direction, pick up speed, slow
one’s identity, reflecting aspects of one’s personality, rela-
down, run shallow or deep. But it is ongoing, with each im-
tionships, and lifestyle—which is why the theft of one’s im-
age linked to those before and after it in psychological ways
age, as sometimes happens, feels like a violation not only of
that may or may not be visible in the images themselves. The
ownership but of self. In some cases, the image gives ex-
“spaces” between images are as important signifiers of psy-
pression to the unconscious dimensions of one’s character.
chological dynamics as are the images themselves, pointing
It can become a representation that a person builds of him-
to underlying cognitions and affects that stimulated the tran-
self or herself—not necessarily the self as usually experi-
sition.
enced but as an experiment that gives expression to some
The human psyche consists of memories, ideas, sensations,
underlying anxiety, wish, or ideal. The person then estab-
and emotions, all linked to each other in complex chains of
lishes a relationship to that image as a means to establish a
associations. A series of images in a photographer’s collec-
relationship to some emerging aspect of his or her identity.
tion is a glimpse into that intrapsychic world. The degree to

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PHOTO-SHARING COMMUNITIES
557
which people explore different subjects and imaging tech-
can provide additional insight, humor, emotion, and self-dis-
niques in their photostream reflects the diversity, complex-
closure. Effective titles, descriptions, and tags entice the
ity, and points of focus in their intrapsychic world. Some
viewer into the image and in some cases might even upstage
people explicitly use their photostream as an ongoing visual
the image.
journal to chronicle their lives, sometimes including many
Although images, in and of themselves, can have a pow-
self-portraits or images of their environments and significant
erful impact, it is the combination of the image with text de-
others, while other people present photographs of scenes
scriptors that launches the potential for a relationship be-
that are visually pleasing to them without that explicit link
tween photographers and their visitors. Photographers
to their lives. Nevertheless, in all cases, the sequence of im-
become more present and “real” as people via the accom-
ages reflects the person’s intrapsychic reality and how it
panying text they offer. For this reason, they feel a strong in-
changes over time.
terpersonal disconnection from visitors who leave comments
indicating that they obviously have paid no attention to text
Image Descriptors
descriptors. The viewer’s neglect in understanding neither
the image nor the photographer might even seem callous or
Only rarely do people upload images to Flickr without any
toxic when they offer comments indicating that they obvi-
accompanying text. Usually, at the very least, people create
ously overlooked the photographer’s personal self-disclo-
a title for the image. They may also add a description of one
sures in the text descriptors.
or two sentences or, in some cases, several paragraphs, as
well as “tags” that serve as keywords that help people lo-
Comments on Photos
cate the image using search engines.
An image title can be a creative component of the com-
In the discussion board below each image, visitors can
munication process. It adds a layer of meaning that is not
comment on it as well as engage the photographer and each
immediately obvious in the photo. It may be playful,
other in conversation. These dialogues form the basis for an
provocative, or contradict the qualities of the image. If peo-
immersion into a collective appreciation and understanding
ple want to convey a particular idea, especially if they pre-
of the image and for the development of interpersonal rela-
fer one of a variety of possible interpretations of the image,
tionships. People’s skill and motivation for writing will
they create a title that steers viewers in that direction. They
shape their participation in these conversations. Because
might be attempting to prevent viewers from getting the
Flickr is a photo-sharing community, some people, especially
“wrong” impression, even though the image could be inter-
those who are primarily visual in their cognitive style, may
preted that way. In some cases, the title elevates a techni-
be more invested in the imagistic experience than in verbal
cally poor or average photo to a higher level of psychologi-
dialogue. No doubt, the experience of Flickr is quite differ-
cal impact. It can be more powerful than the image itself, as
ent for those who participate in the exchange of comments
when the photographer personalizes the image with emo-
as compared to those who do not, especially because text
tional self-disclosures as titles. Titles containing questions—
communication plays such an important role in the devel-
as in those that challenge viewers to solve some puzzle about
opment of relationships.
the photo—are effective in drawing people into the image.
In developing their cyberpsychological equilibrium, mem-
Many Flickr members believe that a title “makes or breaks”
bers face the challenge of managing the amount of time spent
an image.
in commenting on others’ photos. Comments longer than a
For the photographer, creating a title can be a process of
few sentences often indicate a strong personal reaction to the
discovering new meanings in the image via an internalized
photo, an ongoing relationship between the viewer and the
dialogue with imagined viewers. “What do I want you, the
photographer, or motivation to establish a relationship. Peo-
viewer, to see in this image?” and “What does this image
ple appreciate the time and effort others put into a detailed,
mean to me?” are questions that go hand in hand. When pho-
thoughtful, or insightful comment. In fact, such comments
tographers know what they want to say and how they want
are regarded as a precious commodity. They are reserved for
others to react, a title may pop immediately into mind. In
friends, family, and other important contacts; or they can be-
other cases, they may give careful thought to their titles. They
come a form of social barter in which a person leaves one
know that they like a photo but are unsure why. Searching
with the hope or expectation of getting one. Some members
for a title might clarify this. It might help them uncover the
lament this “tit for tat” system of exchange, although many
subconscious feelings, memories, and fantasies that they as-
people do not continue commenting on someone’s photos if
sociate with the image and how (or whether) they wish view-
that person does not reciprocate.
ers to react to these things.
Like the sequence of images that a person uploads to
Descriptions accompanying an image, especially detailed
Flickr, the series of comments from visitors helps shape the
and well-written ones, can be quite powerful by providing
unique atmosphere of one’s photostream. When a photo-
more in-depth information, often serving as a narrative
stream thrives as a social entity—which does not happen in
about an event in one’s life or an explanation of one’s point
all cases because some photographers receive few com-
of view on some subject, for which the image serves as an
ments—stability is attained in the people who visit and the
illustration. Tags, which are displayed in a rather incon-
kinds of comments they leave. By selectively responding to
spicuous sidebar on the photo page, are sometimes used not
and therefore reinforcing certain types of comments and, in
simply as keywords to categorize an image but as an op-
some cases, by deleting comments that seem inappropriate,
portunity for the photographer to present a kind of subvo-
the photographer contributes to this molding of the distinc-
cal comment on the image—a parenthetical thought, whis-
tive character of his or her photostream. Comments tend to
per, aside, digression, or even a “mumbling to oneself” that
fall into these categories:

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Terse praise
Interpretations of the photographer
A very large number of comments are brief compliments,
Some viewers use the image as a vehicle for commenting
such as “great capture” and “beautiful colors.” While pho-
on the mood, personality, or life of the photographer. The
tographers appreciate any type of comment, these brief re-
more the photographer deliberately creates and presents the
marks tend to be generic and in some ways unsatisfying.
image as an expression of self—most notably in self-por-
Visitors may offer terse praise because they feel unable to
traits—the more likely visitors will make such comments.
verbalize how an image affected them. Usually, the pre-
When self-disclosures embedded in the image are intended,
ponderance of brief comments is the result of people feel-
photographers usually will appreciate accurate interpreta-
ing that they do not have the time to say more as they make
tions, while feeling misunderstood when the interpretations
their rounds in visiting many photostreams. Therefore,
seem wrong. Viewers sometimes interpret the image in ways
short, positive comments tend to be the norm. Social status
the photographer did not consciously intend when creating
and the “interestingness” ratings for images revolve around
it. Depending on the accuracy and intent of the interpreta-
how many comments one receives, so brief compliments
tion, photographers might feel misunderstood, attacked, or
become a form of social currency. In the bartering system,
delighted to discover something new about the image and
one gives a terse compliment when one receives one. The
themselves. People who design their photostream for the
large number of complimentary comments creates an over-
specific purpose of self-disclosing about their personality
all positive atmosphere within the community, which
and life will typically appreciate, or at least take interest in,
might reflect a tacit agreement among members that self-
almost all of their visitors’ interpretations because their pho-
disclosure via photo-sharing should be respected as an ac-
tography serves the purpose of a “looking-glass self” in
tivity that places people in a socially and artistically vul-
which the process of self-discovery relies on feedback from
nerable position.
others.10 For some of these photographers, images become
an ongoing stream of idealized, desired, feared, or realistic
portrayals of their identity. To experiment with and develop
Critiques and technical remarks
their identity, they establish a relationship to these images
Members seeking to improve their photography may wel-
as transformational objects that are partly self, not self, and
come constructive criticism about the technical aspects of
potential self.11 Comments from their visitors assist them in
their shooting, postprocessing, and composition. Receiving
this process of discovering what they are, what they are not,
technical comments and critiques, even those that seem in-
what they wish to be.
appropriate, can help the photographer better understand
Topical comments
his or her cyberpsychological niche in the community. Peo-
ple from different niches may not understand or appreciate
Images can stimulate comments about a wide range of po-
each other’s work. Other members, particularly those who
litical, philosophical, and intellectual topics. The conversa-
are not necessarily interested in improving their photogra-
tions that emerge resemble the group dynamics of blogs and
phy or who simply wish to share photos with friends, may
traditional discussion boards, with the image serving as a
not appreciate critiques or advice from their visitors. The
centerpiece or stabilizing reference point for the dialogue.
self-disclosures that occur in images and text, as well as the
When these conversations among visitors and the photog-
occasional inappropriately hostile comments, are evidence
rapher become lengthy, especially when flame wars fuel and
supporting the well-known online disinhibition effect;9 how-
prolong the debates, the image may become incidental to the
ever, the distinctly pleasant atmosphere in Flickr created by
discussion that takes on a life of its own.
positive comments is a notable exception to the negative as-
pects of that disinhibition effect.
Questions
Rather than offering a statement about an image, view-
ers might instead ask a question about it, which invites a
Personal reactions
dialogue and possibly a relationship between the viewer
Viewers often comment on what they personally like
and the photographer. Many photographers, especially
about an image, such as the colors, shapes, and textures; the
those who receive a limited number of visitors, appreciate
people or subjects in the shot; and the idea, feeling, or sen-
the interest implied by asking a question as well as the op-
sation that the image creates. They engage in a process of
portunity to discuss themselves and their photos.
free association by describing what the image reminds them
Although members report that the combination of words
of, including events and people from their own lives. They
and images can be especially powerful in the formation of
may personalize the photo and project their own meaning
relationships, they note that it is difficult to imagine a re-
into it by describing how it relates to themselves or what it
lationship developing without comments. Personally and
means to them on an emotional, social, or philosophical level.
in their photography, people may be significantly influ-
Rather than intended as an objective evaluation of the pho-
enced by another person’s images, and that influence may
tograph, such comments serve more as an interpersonal
in some cases be reciprocal, yet without text communica-
bridge between the viewer and the photographer. If the im-
tion, their relationship exists in a purely preverbal, experi-
age expresses unconscious meanings for the photographer,
ential realm that each of them may find difficult or am-
then the viewers’ spontaneous expressions of how the im-
biguous to confirm as a “relationship.” Instead, in most
age affects them may reflect their own unconscious connec-
cases, images serve as the starting point for the relation-
tion to those meanings, which can lead to empathic attach-
ship, which then evolves via exchanged comments on pho-
ment between the photographer and the viewer.
tos and later perhaps via e-mail, phone, and face-to-face

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PHOTO-SHARING COMMUNITIES
559
contact. For some people, the socializing and social net-
asm about a friend’s performance, mostly because it is the
working aspect of Flickr is as important as, if not more im-
friendship that is important and not necessarily the image.
portant than, photo-sharing. Images serve as conversation
Some members feel more inclined to fav the photos of friends
pieces, as convenient vehicles for people to talk to each
than those of acquaintances and strangers, probably because
other about themselves and their lives.
they think of the fav as a sign of intimacy and camaraderie.
Action: the Fav
Social barter
Behaviors that involve little if any text or imagistic com-
Favs can serve as an item for bartering. When one receives
munication also play an important role in interpersonal dy-
a fav from a visitor, one gives a fav in return; or one may
namics. Any given online environment might provide a va-
give a fav with the hope or expectation that the other mem-
riety of such actions that members use to develop their
ber will reciprocate. The value of the fav rests not only in its
identity and participation in the community. In Flickr, one
being a sign of appreciation but also in the fact that the num-
such behavior is the fav—a button beneath a photo that vis-
ber of favs for an image boosts its “interestingness” rating
itors can click to indicate that they consider it one of their
and hence the status of the member in the community.
favorite images. A catalog of the images that a person
“fav’ed” is available in his or her home area within Flickr
Efficient communication
and can be viewed by visitors. Even though the fav seems
to be a relatively simple type of action, it has acquired a va-
The fav may serve as a substitute for leaving a comment
riety of psychological and social functions:
when people can’t find the words to describe why they liked
an image, when they don’t have time to leave a comment,
Personal impact
or when they lack facility in the photographer’s language. It
is a nonverbal way to indicate one’s presence in the person’s
People may fav an image when it has a strong emotional
photostream and an appreciation of an image. In some cases,
impact on them. Members describe such favs in terms of their
people consider it rude when visitors leave a fav without an
immediate reaction to the image, its “wow” factor, how
accompanying comment, especially when that visitor is re-
beautiful and inspiring it is, how it made them laugh, its fas-
garded as a friend. However, other members are more apt
cinating perplexities, how it speaks to them, resonates with
to fav rather than comment if they view photography in
them, or touches them on a deep level. These types of favs
terms of experiential or “gut” reactions rather than verbal
may help visitors express their appreciation of the photo
analysis.
when they feel its impact but are not sure why or cannot ad-
equately verbalize why.
Remembrances
Technical or artistic merit
Although some members rarely look at the images that
are stored in their fav collection, others do return to these
Viewers may offer a fav as an acknowledgment of the tech-
photos. Using these favs as reminders of the types of images
nical or artistic skill demonstrated in the photo. They might
they enjoyed, they may discover patterns in their visual pref-
fav images that demonstrate excellent examples of their own
erences. They may wish to recapture some mood, idea, or
style of photography, reveal technical and artistic ideas that
inspiration that the image initially triggered. As components
are new to them, or illustrate admirable skills even though
of one’s social network, stored favs also include links to the
the image itself does not match the visitor’s preferred tastes.
photostreams of those photographers, thereby serving not
When visitors wish to offer helpful feedback, the fav may
just as souvenirs or reminders of those people but also as
not indicate that the photo is actually a favorite for them but
implicit interpersonal connections to them. In large online
rather that in the eyes of the visitor, this particular image is
communities, tools for remembering and reconnecting with
the photographer’s best effort.
other people are important.
Social support
Conclusions
A visitor might offer a fav to support and encourage other
Despite the rich psychological meanings embedded in im-
members when they are new at doing photography, at-
ages and the compelling impact they have on other people, in-
tempting something different in their work, or taking a risk
terpersonal relationships rarely form and develop by images
of some kind. As a form of nonverbal behavior, this type of
alone. In photo-sharing communities, a member presents the
fav serves as an acknowledging smile, a nod of the head, a
image to everyone in the community, or to a group of people,
pat on the back, or applause. While people who fav as an in-
as an expression of self. Only rarely is the image intended for
dication of personal impact and technical/artistic merit tend
someone in particular. Instead, it is exchange of words between
to do so selectively, those who offer favs for social support
members that establishes their mutually recognized presence
tend to be more liberal. Some members who start out in Flickr
to each other. It is the exchange of words that is critical in
being very “stingy” about favs eventually use them more
launching their relationship and in the joint understanding of
freely, most likely in the spirit of encouraging social support.
shared meanings that advances the relationship. Images pro-
vide an undercurrent of emotion and ideas that enrich inter-
Friendship
personal dynamics, often on a level that is not fully conscious
The fav can be a gesture of friendship. People give them
or capable of being verbalized; but text communication be-
to friends or in hopes of establishing an amiable relationship.
tween people provide the more deliberate social efforts to ad-
As a type of social grooming, offering a fav shows enthusi-
vance that particular relationship. Actions that do not rely on

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detailed text communication or images add a supplemental
5. Suler J. (2007) Photographic psychology. www.flickr.com/
level of complexity to this interpersonal behavior. The success
photos/jsuler/sets/72057594126928976/ (accessed June 29,
of many contemporary online communities often rests on
2008).
whether the design of the environment includes image, words,
6. Freud S. (1912) Recommendations to physicians practicing
and actions, how well members can control them, and the de-
psychoanalysis. In Strachey J, ed., trans., The standard edition
gree to which these dimensions of interpersonal behavior are
of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. 12. .
integrated with each other.
London: Hogarth Press [1958], pp. 109–20.
7. Winnicott DW. (1971) Playing and reality. New York: Basic
Books.
Disclosure Statement
8. Exner J. (2002) The Rorschach: basic foundations and principles
of interpretation. New York: Wiley.
The author has no conflict of interest.
9. Suler J. The online disinhibition effect. CyberPsychology &
Behavior 2004; 7:321–6
10. Cooley CH. (1902) Human nature and the social order. New
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