Impact of euthanasia rates, euthanasia practices, and human ...

JAVMA—06-07-0371—SR—Rogelberg—2tab—0fig—SLK—HLS
Impact of euthanasia rates, euthanasia practices,
and human resource practices
on employee turnover in animal shelters
Steven G. Rogelberg, phd; Charlie L. Reeve, phd; Christiane Spitzmüller, phd; Natalie DiGiacomo, ms;
Olga L. Clark, phd; Lisa Teeter, ma; Alan G. Walker, phd; Paula G. Starling, ma; Nathan T. Carter, ma
Objective—To examine the effects of euthanasia rates, euthanasia practices, and human
resource practices on the turnover rate among employees with euthanasia responsibilities
at animal shelters.
Design—Cross-sectional original study.
Sample Population—36 shelters across the United States that employed at least 5 full-
time employees and performed euthanasia on site.
Procedures—By mail, 1 survey was sent to each shelter. Surveys were completed by a se-
nior member of management and were returned by mail. Questions assessed characteris-
tics (eg, euthanasia rates) and practices of the animal shelter, along with employee turnover
rates. By use of correlation coefficients and stepwise regression analyses, key predictors of
SPECIAL
turnover rates among employees with euthanasia responsibilities were investigated.
Results—Employee turnover rates were positively related to euthanasia rate. Practices that
were associated with decreased turnover rates included provision of a designated eutha-
REPOR
nasia room, exclusion of other live animals from vicinity during euthanasia, and removal of
euthanized animals from a room prior to entry of another animal to be euthanized. Mak-
ing decisions regarding euthanasia of animals on the basis of factors other than behavior
T
and health reasons was related to increased personnel turnover. With regard to human
resources practices, shelters that used a systematic personnel selection procedure (eg,
standardized testing) had comparatively lower employee turnover.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—These data may suggest several specific avenues
that can be pursued to mitigate turnover among employees with euthanasia responsibilities
at animal shelters and animal control or veterinary medical organizations. (J Am Vet Med
Assoc 2007;230:xxx–xxx)
Each year, an estimated 3 to 4 million companion ganization; the heavy costs of high turnover are well
animals are euthanized in shelters.1
documented.2-4 When an employee leaves his or her
Most typically, the task of euthanizing society’s un-
job, the time and money spent on recruiting, hiring,
wanted animals falls in the hands of animal shelter work-
and training that individual is lost and more time and
ers. To date, the factors associated with turnover rates
money must be spent on recruiting, hiring, and training
among employees who have specifically been charged
a replacement. Additionally, the loss of knowledge and
with euthanasia responsibilities are poorly understood.
expertise likely has a negative impact on organizational
Employee turnover is commonly cited as one of
effectiveness and image and may create additional stress
the most important human resource issues for an or-
for remaining employees as they shoulder the burden
of increased work and experience reduced morale (eg,
From the Department of Psychology and Organizational Science, College
feelings of disappointment at the loss of a valued col-
of Arts and Sciences, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC
28223 (Rogelberg, Reeve); the Department of Psychology, College of
league or friend). At the same time, turnover can often
Liberal Arts and Social Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX
spur another employee who is undecided whether to
77204 (Spitzmüller); the Spartanburg Humane Society, 150 Dexter Rd,
stay in employment at that shelter to leave the organiza-
Spartanburg, SC 29303 (DiGiacomo); the Department of Psychology,
tion.2 The costs associated with employee turnover are
College of Arts and Sciences, University of Hartford, West Hartford,
typically amplified in animal shelter environments that
CT 06117 (Clark); the Development Dimensions International
are understaffed and underfunded. We do recognize,
Inc (DDI), 1225 Washington Pike, Bridgeville, PA 15017 (Teeter);
the Department of Psychology, Thomas Harriot College of Arts
however, that turnover of poorly performing employees
and Sciences, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858-4353
can be beneficial to an organization.
(Walker); the Department of Psychology, College of Education and
Given the substantial direct and indirect costs as-
Behavioral Sciences, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green,
sociated with employee turnover, research is needed
KY 42101 (Starling); and the Department of Psychology, College of
to identify factors and practices that may reduce the
Arts and Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green,
likelihood of shelter employees leaving their organiza-
OH 43402 (Carter).
Supported by The Humane Society of the United States.
tions. Questions that are pertinent include whether em-
Presented at the 2003 Ohio Veterinary Medical Association Annual
ployee turnover rates are related to animal euthanasia
Conference.
rates, euthanasia practices, or certain human resource
Address correspondence to Dr. Rogelberg.
practices (eg, methods used to screen and select new
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employees) within a shelter. Although other classes
For those shelters that conduct euthanasia activi-
of variables may also be useful to explain shelter-level
ties, a decision-making system is often used to determine
turnover, euthanasia rates, euthanasia practices, and
whether an animal should or should not be euthanized.
human resource practices appear particularly salient, as
Most shelters euthanize animals because of behavior
substantiated by previous related work.5-11
and health reasons; however, shelters vary in the extent
Euthanasia of animals is a physical, technical, and
that the euthanasia decision is based on factors beyond
emotional act and by its very nature, an act that places
health and behavior (eg, breed and age of the animal,
an employee in direct contact with death. The scientific
whether the animal is pregnant, and the composition
community has acknowledged the potentially disturb-
of the current animal population at the shelter). Eu-
ing psychologic ramifications of euthanasia work.5 The
thanasia for nonbehavior and nonhealth reasons is not
most comprehensive study6 to date surveyed attend-
something shelter organizers aspire or desire to do, but
ees of an animal welfare conference who worked at an
depending on the extent of pet relinquishment, facility
animal shelter where euthanasia was performed. The
size, and other factors, it can become necessary.
data revealed that self-reported perceptions of euthana-
The field of organizational science has promoted
sia-related strain were fairly prevalent among employ-
the importance of human resource practices to indi-
ees with euthanasia responsibilities. Furthermore, the
vidual and organizational health, well-being, and ef-
study identified a pattern of differences in stress and
fectiveness for approximately 70 years. Two practices
well-being between those who were directly involved
that have received great attention concern employee
with euthanasia and those who were not directly in-
selection and performance appraisal. With regard to the
volved—persons who were directly involved in eutha-
former, employee selection is presumably performed in
nasia reported significantly higher levels of work stress,
all shelters. Shelters differ, however, with regard to the
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stress-related somatic complaints, and work-to-family
extent that organizers engage in what is considered sci-
conflict and lower levels of satisfaction with the work
entifically sound selection by use of standardized tests
they actually do. These results provided a quantitative
that have been validated, professionally designed work
REPOR
confirmation of prior qualitative studies.7,8
sample selection tests, or structured (versus unstruc-
Given the impact of euthanasia on individuals and
tured) interviews. Furthermore, the extent to which
the fact that it is a unique type of stressor, it follows that
applicants are provided with a realistic job preview of
SPECIAL
shelters with higher rates of euthanasia should have
the work conducted at a shelter prior to being hired
greater collective negative impact (ie, more of the stress-
varies among shelters. Provision of a realistic job pre-
or) on employees and thus higher levels of turnover.
view allows an applicant to better understand what the
Despite the existence of a variety of guides and ad-
work entails and adjust expectations or opt out of the
vice regarding so-called best practices for euthanasia of
selection process. With regard to performance apprais-
animals (eg, The Humane Society of the United States
al, shelter managers vary with regard to the extent to
Euthanasia Training Manual12), shelters often vary with
which they use professionally developed, formal per-
regard to specific aspects of the euthanasia process,
formance appraisal processes with employees. A formal
such as how animals are selected for euthanasia, where
appraisal process operates under the assumption that
and by whom euthanasia is conducted, and how the act
employee development should not occur by chance or
itself is performed. In general, the following practices
be a disorganized experience. Instead, a well-planned
tend to be advocated: euthanasia by IV injection of so-
approach to assessing employee strengths and growth
dium pentobarbital (as opposed to use of inhalants),
areas should be undertaken regularly. In addition to
rotation among employees who perform euthanasia,
helping promote employee development, a formal ap-
provision of a designated euthanasia room, absence of
praisal system facilitates management-employee com-
other live animals in the area in which euthanasia is
munication. The use of these human resource practic-
occurring, and removal of euthanized animals from an
es helps to promote what is called the person-job fit.
area prior to entry of an additional animal to be eu-
Research from organizational sciences has determined
thanized. Each of these recommendations should help
that enhanced person-job fit (ie, when the person has
ameliorate employee stress directly (eg, rotation of re-
a personality and skills that fulfill job requirements) is
sponsibility) or indirectly by promoting the humane
associated with increased job satisfaction and reduced
treatment of animals. Many employees are attracted to
turnover.11
animal shelters because of a love and appreciation of
The purpose of the study reported here was to ex-
animals, and some type of employee-animal bond is in-
amine the effects of euthanasia rates, euthanasia prac-
evitable. These same employees will likely have to eu-
tices, and human resource practices on the turnover rate
thanize animals for which they have provided daily care
among employees who have euthanasia responsibilities
and attention.7,8 As a result, employees may experience
at animal shelters. Our hypotheses were that euthana-
additional stress when these advocated practices are not
sia rates are positively related to the rate of turnover
implemented in their agency. This notion is consistent
among those employees with euthanasia responsibili-
with findings of some interview research, which deter-
ties; that the increased use of the advocated euthana-
mined that worker distress and the amount of apparent
sia practices will be associated with decreased turnover
emotional and physical suffering of the animal (attrib-
among shelter employees with euthanasia responsibili-
utable to the euthanasia method) are interrelated.9 In
ties; that shelters in which euthanasia is performed for
addition, some recent research on laboratory animals
reasons other than behavior and health issues will have
revealed that opportunities for enhancement of the
greater turnover among shelter employees with eutha-
comfort of the animals increases job satisfaction.10
nasia responsibilities; and that the use of scientific and
2
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professionally developed selection systems, realistic job
pected to accurately provide the requested information.
previews, and formal performance appraisal systems
As part of the pilot testing procedure, answers to the
will be negatively related to employee turnover, such
survey questions were sought from 6 subject-matter
that their use is associated with decreased turnover.
experts (including 4 current or past shelter directors).
Overall, by testing our hypotheses, we endeavored to
On the basis of their feedback, the survey items were
gain insights into employee turnover in shelters and
revised appropriately (only minor wording problems
also identify practices that animal welfare organiza-
were identified).
tions and related organizations can adopt to ameliorate
A turnover index was created by combining 2 theo-
employee turnover, thereby benefiting organizational
retically similar survey items that were also, as expect-
functioning.
ed, positively correlated with one another (r = 0.46; P <
0.05 [a value of P < 0.05 was considered significant]).
Materials and Methods
The first item was the percentage of employees perform-
Participants and procedures
ing euthanasia who had left the shelter’s employment
—Directors from 88
within the past year. The second item, the corollary
animal shelter facilities throughout the United States
to the first, was the current percentage of employees
were contacted. These facilities were selected from a
performing euthanasia who had been employed at the
combination of sources including the Humane Soci-
shelter for < 1 year. To calculate the actual turnover
ety of the United States Animal Care EXPO conference
index score for a shelter, scores from each survey item
registration lists and from shelter listings compiled by
were standardized into
offices of the Humane Society of the United States. Al-
z scores and then combined.
Two indicators of euthanasia rates were used. The
though most of these directors agreed to participate, a
total number of dogs euthanized divided by the total
large number of these shelters did not meet our partici-
SPECIAL
number of dogs admitted to the shelter represented the
pation criteria of having at least 5 full-time employees
euthanasia rate for dogs. The total number of cats eu-
and performing on-site euthanasia. The 5 full-time em-
thanized divided by the total number of cats admitted
ployee criterion was used so that scores on the turnover
REPOR
to the shelter represented the euthanasia rate for cats.
index would be more stable and reliable (eg, to avoid
the situation where a shelter employs 1 person, and
The set of items used to assess euthanasia prac-
when that person leaves, a value of 100% turnover is
tices was answered by use of a 5-point scale (1, never;
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recorded). Thus, the study involved 36 animal shelters
5, always). Questions related to whether euthanasia re-
in 20 states. Each shelter received 1 survey by mail; the
sponsibilities were rotated among employees, whether
survey was completed by a senior member of manage-
there was a designated area in which shelter staff per-
ment who had knowledge of administrative practices,
formed euthanasia, whether other animals were in the
financial issues, and other organizational information
room during euthanasia of an animal, and whether eu-
and returned by mail. The survey was not anonymous,
thanized animals were removed from the room before
but the results were kept confidential.
other animals were allowed to enter. The methods used
The shelters were located widely throughout the
to achieve euthanasia at the shelter were explored. All
United States. Of the 36 shelters, 23 (63%) were private
shelters indicated that IV injection of sodium pentobar-
shelters and 13 (36%) were public (ie, municipal or
bital was the primary method; thus, this factor could
government-owned) shelters. The smallest shelter had
not be used in any of the analyses because of a lack
6 full-time employees, and the largest shelter had 75
of between-shelter variability. Finally, a set of items
full-time employees. Four (11%) shelters had operating
was included to identify what factors are used at the
budgets < $500,000, 21 (58%) had operating budgets of
shelter to determine whether an animal should be eu-
$500,000 to $1.5 million, and 11 (31%) had operating
thanatized. All shelters euthanized animals for behavior
budgets > $1.5 million.
and health reasons; however, shelters varied with re-
gard to whether euthanasia was performed for reasons
Measures—Survey items were created by the re-
other than behavior and health issues (eg, on the basis
searchers (SGR, CLR, CS, ND, OLC) to assess the key
of breed, pregnancy, and age [too young or too old]).
variables described in each of the 3 research questions.
Responses to these 5 items were averaged (coefficient
Given the need to keep the survey a manageable length
α, 0.81) to obtain a single score representing the likeli-
to minimize the risk of nonresponse, the opportunity to
hood of euthanasia being performed for reasons other
comprehensively explore the focal interests or assess a
than behavior and health issues at each shelter.
wide range of additional factors was limited. The ques-
Three items were used to assess human resources
tions used were straightforward and related to objective
practices applied to shelter employees with euthanasia
policies, procedures, and organizational descriptors (as
responsibilities. By use of a 3-point scale (1, method
opposed to questions designed to assess psychological
not used; 2, occasionally used method; 3, primary
constructs). Although reliability and validity are still
method), the use of systematic employee selection test-
relevant in this survey context, the key criteria for as-
ing to screen applicants and make hiring decisions (eg,
sessing the quality of descriptive items (such as those
standardized tests, work samples, and formal assess-
used in the study reported here) typically consists of
ment of skills with methods other than unstructured
asking subject-matter experts to evaluate dimensions
interview) were investigated. The 3-point scale was also
of the survey items (prior to administration). Such di-
used to assess whether the shelter required applicants
mensions include clarity of content, appropriateness
to come to the organization to get a realistic preview of
of content, and whether the respondent (ie, a shelter
the work conducted. To answer the question of whether
director or senior manager) could reasonably be ex-
their organization had a formal performance appraisal
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process, respondents indicated yes (coded as 1) or no
iteratively altering the model at the previous step by
(coded as 2).
adding or removing a predictor variable in accordance
with entry and removal criteria that are typically based
Statistical analysis—All analyses were performed
on P values, and terminating the model generation pro-
by use of computer software.a To test our hypotheses,
cess when no additional variables are meeting the entry
direct correlations between the hypothesized predictors
or removal criteria. The entry and removal criteria used
and the turnover index were investigated. To maximize
were P values of 0.10 for variable entry and P values of
statistical power associated with conducting shelter-lev-
0.15 for variable removal (these are fairly typical values
el analyses, a value of P < 0.10 was used as the decision
used when conducting stepwise regression). Prior to
rule to determine significance. To ascertain the com-
examining the models involving the significant predic-
bined effects of the significant predictors identified, a
tors, we decided to rule out potential confounding fac-
stepwise regression analysis was conducted. A stepwise
tors by statistically controlling for the size of the shel-
regression procedure is a model-building process. The
ter, whether the shelter was public versus private, and
basic procedures involve identifying an initial model,
the size of the shelter’s operating budget.
Table 1—Descriptive statistics and correlations of the principal variables with the turnover index in
a study of the impact of euthanasia rates, euthanasia practices, and human resource practices on
employee turnover in 36 animal shelters.

Mean value 95% confidence Correlation with
T
Predictor variable
for sample
interval
turnover index
Euthanasia rate for dogs
0.43
0.34–0.51
0.36a
Euthanasia rate for cats
0.59
0.51–0.68
–0.04
REPOR
Euthanasia responsibilities rotated among staff
3.80
3.39–4.21
–0.10
Designated euthanasia room available
4.74
4.49–5.00
–0.35a
Other live animals in room during euthanasia of an animal
2.57
2.18–2.96
0.51b
Euthanized animals removed before other animals enter
SPECIAL
euthanasia area
4.00
3.64–4.36
–0.33a
Animals euthanized for reasons other than behavior and
health issues
3.55
3.21–3.88
0.28c
Systematic employee selection system
2.53
2.27–2.79
–0.29c
Realistic job previews provided for job applicants
1.44
1.21–1.67
–0.05
Formal performance appraisal system used
1.23
1.08–1.37
0.02
a-cSuperscript letters identify the P value associated with the correlation calculation (P , 0.05, , 0.01,
and , 0.10, respectively).
Table 2—Stepwise regression models in a study of the impact of euthanasia rates, euthanasia practices,
and human resource practices on employee turnover in 36 animal shelters.
No. of variables



Significance
in model
Predictors in model
b value
t value
level (P value)

1
Other live animals in room during
0.39
3.33
0.00


euthanasia of an animal

2
Other live animals in room during
0.35
3.12
0.00


euthanasia of an animal


Systematic employee selection
–0.30
1.89
0.06


system used at shelter

3
Other live animals in room during
0.33
2.94
0.00


euthanasia of an animal


Systematic employee selection
–0.29
–1.84
0.07


system used at shelter


Provision of designated euthanasia
–0.27
–1.66
0.10


room

4
Other live animals in room during
0.32
2.98
0.00


euthanasia of an animal


Systematic employee selection
–0.25
–1.68
0.10


system used at shelter


Provision of designated euthanasia
–0.30
–1.93
0.06


room


Euthanasia performed for reasons
0.20
1.69
0.10


other than behavior or health issues
Models were controlled for variance attributable to the size of the shelter, whether the shelter was a
public versus private organization, and the size of the shelter’s operating budget prior to conducting these
regression analyses.

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Results
and well-being; it is a unique type of stressor. Con-
sistently, results of our study have provided evidence
Shelters varied widely with regard to turnover index
that the euthanasia rates for dogs are strongly associ-
scores. Shelter turnover index scores were not related to
ated with employee turnover. When the rate of dog eu-
the size of the shelter, whether the shelter was public
thanasia at a shelter increases, employees appear to be
versus private, or the size of the shelter’s operating bud-
affected and turnover increases. This finding extends
get. Mean values and 95% confidence intervals and the
current thinking regarding euthanasia as a stressor by
intercorrelations of the principal variables in the study
highlighting the fact that the amount of euthanasia per-
with the turnover index were calculated (Table 1).
formed in shelters is important for understanding em-
Euthanasia rates, euthanasia practices, and hu-
ployee turnover for both individual employees within a
man resource practices—The euthanasia rate for dogs
given shelter and also for the shelter in its entirety (ie,
was, as expected, correlated (r = 0.36; P < 0.05) with the
across all employees in a given shelter). The caring-kill-
turnover index such that higher euthanasia rates were
ing paradox discussed by Arluke7,8 can help explain this
associated with increased employee turnover. However,
finding. The caring-killing paradox describes how shel-
the euthanasia rate for cats was not significantly related
ter workers are often asked to euthanize the animals for
to employee turnover.
which they are caring. When euthanasia rates within a
Two euthanasia practices were associated with de-
shelter are high, the paradox is even more prominent—
creased turnover: provision of a designated euthanasia
a greater proportion of the animals for which workers
room (r = –0.36; P < 0.05) and removal of euthanized ani-
are caring are in fact being euthanized. Thus, greater
mals from an area prior to entry of an additional animal
employee strain is most likely generated, resulting in
to be euthanized (r = –0.33; P < 0.05). Two practices were
higher levels of employee turnover.
SPECIAL
also associated with increased turnover: presence of other
It is noteworthy that euthanasia rates for cats were
live animals during euthanasia (r = 0.51; P < 0.01) and
not related to turnover in the present study. To under-
euthanasia of animals on the basis of factors not related to
stand this finding, some experienced shelter workers
REPOR
behavior or health such as breed, age, or pregnancy (r =
were informally interviewed on completion of the study.
0.28; P < 0.05). In terms of human resource practices, the
The interviewees suggested that euthanasia of dogs is of-
use of systematic employee selection systems was related
ten psychologically more taxing for employees because
T
to lower rate of turnover (r = –0.29; P < 0.10). Job rota-
shelter workers typically form greater attachment to
tion among employees performing euthanasia, the use of
dogs than to cats. This is attributed to the fact that dogs
a formal performance appraisal system, and the use of a
require a greater level of attention and interaction during
realistic job preview system were not related to turnover.
basic cleaning and care. Furthermore, it is not atypical
for some staff members to exercise the dogs, which only
Combined model—The combined effects of the
serves to heighten attachment. This is not to suggest that
significant predictors identified were investigated by
attachment towards cats is nonexistent, but rather that a
use of stepwise regression analysis. Four models were
greater level of attachment may develop with dogs. Such
generated (Table 2).
comparatively increased attachment to dogs may there-
The final 4-variable model fit the data extremely
fore provide insight into why euthanasia rates of dogs is
well and accounted for a large proportion of turnover
of greater influence on employee turnover.
variance (adjusted R2 = 0.43). This model contained
Veterinarians and others in the animal welfare com-
the following significant variables: other live animals
munity have long advocated for the humane treatment
in room during euthanasia of an animal (β = 0.32),
of animals during care and euthanasia. The definition
systematic employee selection system used at shelter
of euthanasia implies killing in a painless or minimally
(β = –0.25), provision of designated euthanasia room
painful manner and, when at all possible, only to end
(β = –0.30), and euthanasia performed for reasons other
suffering. To achieve this ideal, a set of euthanasia prac-
than behavior or health issues (β = 0.20).
tices have been put forward. Our study, which to our
Discussion
knowledge is the first of its kind to do so empirically,
revealed a connection between these practices and em-
Excessive employee turnover can create a host of
ployee turnover and retention. In particular, availability
strains on an organization—especially if the organiza-
of a designated euthanasia room, absence of other live
tion is understaffed and underfunded as are many ani-
animals during euthanasia of an animal, and removal
mal shelters. The overall objective of the present study
of euthanized animals from an area prior to entry of an
was to gain insight into how shelter practices might in-
additional animal to be euthanized are all related to de-
fluence employee turnover. Findings suggested that a
creased employee turnover. It may be that these seem-
multifaceted perspective is required to best understand
ingly positive practices help buffer the stress associated
turnover among employees with euthanasia responsi-
with performing euthanasia (especially with dogs).
bilities; factors related to euthanasia rates, euthanasia
Overall, the results of the present study suggest that
practices, and human resource practices must be taken
following best practices regarding euthanasia is reward-
into consideration. By doing so in the present study, a
ing, not just from an ethical or humane perspective, but
large proportion of the between-shelter variance was
also from the perspective of employee retention.
accounted for, suggesting that the key predictors iden-
In addition, euthanasia of animals on the basis of
tified in the final model are important factors.
behavior and health issues only (as opposed to reasons
Previous research6 has identified that euthanasia
influenced by breed, age, or pregnancy) was associated
typically has a negative impact on an individual’s health
with decreased turnover in the present study. This is
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not surprising. Reduction or cessation of euthanasia of
eclectic sample to assess these factors, we also suggest
healthy animals is a positive goal for animal shelters,
that the researcher should conduct personal interviews
as supported by our data. However, this is a broad goal
with shelter leaders to help assure that the information
requiring a multifaceted approach that is dependent on
reported on the survey was done so accurately and that
several variables that are typically outside the control of
all questions were answered in the manner they were
shelter management (eg, facility size, funding levels, or
intended.
donor support).
The present study was cross-sectional in nature,
In the field of organizational science, it is generally
and consequently, our ability to make causal inferences
accepted that implementation of scientific and profes-
from the data is limited. Future work should attempt
sionally developed employee selection systems can re-
to examine a small number of shelters and track em-
sult in substantial performance gains for organizations.
ployee turnover over time. Ideally, capturing turnover
In a recent study,13 85 years of research involving 19
data before and after implementation of some of the
different employee selection processes was summa-
positive findings of the study (eg, selection procedures)
rized and results indicated that the use of structured
would offer conclusive evidence on causal directions.
interviews (as opposed to informal, inconsistent, and
Finally, although a great deal of variance in employee
unstructured interviews in which questions are not the
turnover was accounted for, additional research should
same for all candidates) and work sample tests (during
propose and test additional clusters of variables. One
which job applicants are asked to perform actual tasks
such cluster concerns the characteristics of the com-
assigned to that position) were among the best hiring
munity in which the shelter is located, such as extent
procedures in terms of predicting overall employee per-
of financial support for the shelter from the commu-
formance and, in many instances, probable employee
nity; undertaking of volunteer work at the shelter by
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retention. Development of these types of employee
community members; and perhaps of most relevance,
selection systems requires a careful analysis of the job
identification of factors that typically drive animal re-
to identify the specific knowledge, skills, abilities, and
linquishment (eg, poor care or abuse).15 All these fac-
REPOR
personality characteristics that the job requires. Once
tors may relate to employee turnover at shelters because
these are identified, structured interviews comprised
they directly or indirectly impact employee workload,
of specific, job-related questions that are consistently
feelings of support, rates of euthanasia, and the reasons
SPECIAL
asked of each candidate can be developed, with which
for euthanasia.
a given job candidate’s skill set can be evaluated in rela-
Another cluster of variables worthy of examination
tion to what is required. Additionally, some basic tasks
concerns the characteristics of the individuals employed
associated with the job can be identified and applicants
at the shelter. It would be interesting to examine the typi-
can then be asked to actually perform some of those
cal demographic profile of the employees (age, sex, and
tasks. It may also be the case that specially developed job
experience in animal welfare jobs) at shelters. Future
analysis questionnaires (such as the personality-related
studies should also examine how the extent of euthana-
position requirements form14) could be used to iden-
sia training among employees at a shelter relates to turn-
tify specific personality characteristics that may prove
over.16 Most importantly, some employees are more or
critical to employee tenure. For example, it would seem
less susceptible to emotional and psychologic strain as-
to make sense that employees who conduct euthanasia
sociated with a stressor; thus, personality characteristics
should possess high levels of emotional stability. Over-
of the shelter staff should be evaluated.17
all, the results of the present study have confirmed the
A third cluster of factors for investigation concern
importance of adhering to systematic, professionally
organizational variables at the shelters; the role of man-
developed employee hiring procedures.
agement style, pay, teamwork, peer support, organiza-
As with any study, especially those conducted in
tional communication quality, and levels of organiza-
the field, limitations exist that temper implications de-
tional bureaucracy should be examined and related to
rived from results and thereby fuel the need for addi-
employee turnover. Many of these factors are known to
tional research. To the best of our knowledge, this is the
relate to individuals’ decisions to consider searching for
first and largest examination of turnover among shelter
alternative employment.2,3 As for euthanasia factors,
employees with euthanasia responsibilities. Despite the
future studies should examine whether shelters allow
fact that data were collected from 36 shelters (located
technicians to opt out of euthanizing a specific animal
widely across the United States), from a statistical per-
to which they have become attached and whether such
spective, the sample size for data analyses was relatively
an arrangement is related to employee turnover. In ad-
small (this is an issue indigenous to organization-level
dition, the findings of the present study suggest that it
research). Although a large number of robust predic-
may be useful to examine employee turnover and the
tors of employee turnover were identified, the study
euthanasia rate of healthy or treatable animals and that
did not have the statistical power to examine the in-
of unhealthy or untreatable animals separately.
teractive effects of predictors. Furthermore, there was
It is also suggested that additional investigations of
some range restriction on a few of the predictors that
shelter employee turnover should involve a change in
would probably not have occurred with a larger set of
the frame of reference. In the present study, aggregate
shelters; in particular, there was no variability in eutha-
turnover at the shelter was studied. In future work, the
nasia method used by the shelters and little variability
reasons that employees make a decision to leave the
in job rotation, the use of realistic job previews, and
shelter’s employment should be assessed. It would also
the use of performance appraisal systems (which helps
be interesting to know the base rate of individuals that
explain the null results). Besides seeking out a more
actually remain in shelter employment, even though
6
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they are distraught, out of a perceived obligation to
5.
Rollin BE. Euthanasia and moral stress. Loss Grief Care 1986;1:
continue to help the animals.
115–126.
Overall, our data have provided important insight
6.
Reeve CL, Rogelberg SG, Spitzmüller C, et al. The “caring-kill-
into the turnover of employees with euthanasia respon-
ing” paradox: euthanasia-related strain among animal shelter
workers. J Appl Soc Psychol 2005;35:119–143.
sibilities at shelters and perhaps suggest several specific
7.
Arluke A. Managing emotions in an animal shelter. In: Manning
avenues that can be pursued to mitigate this turnover.
A, Serpell J, eds. Animals and human society. New York: Rout-
The findings of the study reported here are applicable
ledge, 1994;145–165.
to any organization in which euthanasia of animals is
8.
Arluke A, Sanders CR. The institutional self of shelter workers.
conducted, such as animal control facilities, animal
In: Regarding animals. Philadelphia: Temple University Press,
shelters, or veterinary care establishments. Although
1996;82–106.
9.
White DJ, Shawhan R. Emotional responses of animal shelter
changes in euthanasia rates may be a more difficult
workers to euthanasia. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1996;208:846–849.
challenge because those rates are usually determined by
10. Chang FT, Hart LA. Human-animal bonds in the laboratory:
societal neglect and assertive adoption practices, public
how animal behavior affects the perspective of caregivers. ILAR
education programs are encouraged. Furthermore, by
J 2002;43:10–18.
more widely adopting advocated euthanasia practices
11. Kristof AL. Person-organization fit: an integrative review of its
and human resource systems, employee retention at
conceptualizations, measurement, and implications. Pers Psychol
1996;49:1–49.
shelters should be greatly improved, which serves to
12. Rhoades RH. The Humane Society of the United States euthanasia
help the organization and its ability to promote animal
training manual. Washington, DC: Humane Society Press, 2002.
welfare.
13. Schmidt FL, Hunter JE. The validity and utility of selection
methods in personnel psychology: practical and theoreti-
cal implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychol Bull
a.
SPSS, version 13, SPSS Inc, Chicago, Ill.
1998;124:262–274.
SPECIAL
14. Raymark PH, Schmit MJ, Guion RM. Identifying potentially use-
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