Volume 2, Issue 1, 2008

Influences and Challenges of Male Gender Construct
Larry Barnes, Assistant Professor, West Texas A&M University, lbarnes@mail.wtamu.edu

Abstract

Adolescent males face a variety of challenges and influences regarding male identity. Environments and
activities that suppress the testing of various roles complicate negotiating conflicting messages about
what it means to be a man. Positive and negative influences on male construct identified by current
research are discussed. Specifically, influences of peer groups, leisure activities, and the classroom are
examined. The experimental process of identity construct for males is identified. Challenges to role
experimentation are recognized and a theory of diverse experience is established as guidance for
caregivers in helping adolescent males through the identity crisis.

Introduction
Identity development is a critical and complicated process for adolescents. Erikson (1959) maintained that
the formation of a healthy sense of identity was crucial in transitioning from adolescence to adulthood.
This important step in maturing is challenged from many sources. Prior research has identified both
psychological stress and anti-social behavior as adversaries to identity development (Wires, Barocas, &
Hollenbeck, 1994). However, new research has implicated lifestyle, classroom dynamics, peer
interactions, and parental influences to be associated with identity development as well. In addition, public
image as transmitted through media services plays a role in determining an adolescent’s acceptance of
gender roles and expressions (Shaw, Kleiber, & Caldwell, 1995). With the increasing understanding of
multi-factorial influences on identity development, how are adolescents coping with the deluge? The
problem is adolescents are struggling with managing the myriad of identity contradictions resulting in
increased violence (Goodey, 1997), harassment (Murnen & Smolak, 2000), sexual deviance (Bogaret,
2003), and self-destructive acts (Beautrais, 2003). Understanding the people, places, and associations
related to identity development will assist caregivers to distinguish healthy approaches for adolescent
development.

Gender identity differences are considered to be interpersonally and environmentally influenced (Pollack,
1995). This is attested to, in part, by the questioning of the meaning of masculinity that typically occurs
during periods of social and economic tensions (Kimmel, 2005). Because gender identity is significantly
influenced by environmental factors, seeking combinations of diverse experiences would provide an
adolescent male with the opportunity to find himself, given time. The purpose of this research article is to
discourage the formulation of a complicated psyche for purposes of identity construct and encourage a
carefully and individually planned activity schedule that maximizes the opportunity for healthy construct.
The theory is that given appropriate diversity in social engagements the adolescent male will discover
himself with fewer complications or stereo typical behaviors. This article will attempt to provide the reader
with a framework from which to contribute proactively to adolescent male gender identity.

Exploring Identities

In an attempt to clarify the process of identity development, Marcia (1980, p.156) identified three periods
of transition: identity diffusion; moratorium; and foreclosure. During the identity diffusion stage an
adolescent begins confronting their identity predicament and becomes confused with little or no
examination of alternatives and no commitment to a particular identity. The moratorium stage is
characterized by an exploration of alternatives without any commitment about self. Foreclosure is marked
by a premature commitment to an unsatisfactory identity without any prior consideration of alternatives.
True identity is only achieved when alternatives have been fully explored and a commitment made to a
particular role and image. It is important to note, however, that adolescents may go through multiple
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stages of development, switch from one developmental period to another, and even get trapped in a
particular period of growth (Waterman, 1985, p. 73). Each of the periods identified allow adolescents to
experiment with different skills, evaluate different outlooks and test different identities in a variety of
contexts (Kleiber & Kirshnit, 1991). Multi-factorial influences shape the process and responses to
experimentation often determine the next step in discovery (Bracken & Lamptecht, 2003). These
influences and responses warrant closer consideration and deeper understanding if caregivers are to
identify methods of coping during these sensitive periods.

Continuing research further defines the social contexts most beneficial to identity experimentation.
Diverse gender interactions involving structured activity, non-sports related competition, and language
rich interactions provide some of the most beneficial opportunities for experimentation (Sommers, 2000,
p.128). However, such diverse contexts require careful review and planning in order to progressively build
on previous self discoveries.

Bracken and Lamptecht (2003) determined that self-identity is progressive in the sense that behaviors
and self-perspectives become increasingly refined within individual domains and differentiated between
spheres of influence with age. They cite an infant as an example of limited experiential history or
environmental exposure and thus expected to have no definitive self-concept. However, as children are
exposed to a variety of settings and experiences they become more adept at differentially evaluating their
individual characteristics and behaviors within those settings. Such an evaluation leads to a commitment
of identity. However, Simmons, Rosenberg, and Rosenberg (1973) discovered consistent outcomes
within similar environmental contexts and somewhat consistent outcomes across different environmental
contexts are crucial in adopting an identity. They concluded that self-image diminishes at adolescence
because of the mixed messages received during this age resulting from limited diversity in social
engagements. Consistent and inconsistence response patterns among domains must then be considered
when looking for ways to guide the self-discovery process.

According to Josselson (1980, p.12), exploring identities involves both individuation and social
relatedness. Individuation refers to the need to separate self from others and social relatedness refers to
the need of belonging to a group. Both needs are influenced by the unique gender roles explored by
adolescents (Poole, 1986). In relation to both needs, Goodey (1997) discovered that the uniquely male
“fearless façade” is largely responsible for a male adolescent’s denial of vulnerability and the display of
aggressive acts toward others. The popular understanding of ‘maleness’ is often reduced to that which is
not feminine. As a result, Ghaill (1994, p.40) concluded a stable male identity has traditionally fallen into a
stereotype of the strong, rational, and sometimes aggressive man and the contexts for experimentation
traditionally promote these stereotypes. Boys experimenting with acts of recklessness (denial of
vulnerability) or aggression towards others and receive consistent, positive responses are more likely to
accept this identity and become part of a group with similar identities (Goodey, 1997). The dynamics of
social influence are two-way, meaning the individual persuades the group and the group persuades the
individual in identity development.

Goodey (1997) provides a specific example of the two-way sphere of influence on identity development
by illustrating a young adolescent male avoiding confrontation with a rowdy group of his peers by crossing
the road. The risk-avoidance individual will assign meaning to his action of crossing the road in the
context of his own personal history of avoidance and fear assessment. The group will consciously and
subconsciously interpret his action in relation to the influence their own masculine status and action as a
group and as individuals who make up the group. Of course ‘fearlessness’ is a difficult task and just one
of many roles an adolescent will attempt to play out in his young life. However, its focus on emotional
expression gets to the heart of what so many adolescent boys struggle with in their search for identity.
Emotional disconnect and the subsequent lack of language for emotional self expression is the result of
separation from primary love objects (mothers) during adolescence (Pollack, 1995). This places many
adolescent boys in a vulnerable developmental phase.

Following his interviews with boys, Ghaill (1994, p. 38) found two themes repeatedly surfacing: first, that
boys perceived no safe space in which they could talk about their feelings of vulnerability and, second,
boys lacked the emotional language necessary for expressing their feelings. As a result, boys adopt their
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own “macho script of cynicism” in order to hide their feelings. Research conducted by Broderick and
Korteland (2002) suggested not only are boys hiding their feelings, rather they are expected to avoid such
issues. The researchers distributed questionnaires to 205 school age girls and 191 school age boys. A
significant number from both genders stated in their answers that males should not direct their attention
inwardly toward negative feelings but should distract themselves from emotional problems. Further
research suggests boys are doing just that. Studying gendered reminiscence practices, Thorne and
McLean (2002) discovered gender differences in the emotional construction of life-threatening events.
Evaluation of male narratives of threatening events showed prevalence in expressing tough, action-
packed descriptions that were noticeably lacking in compassionate language. Goodey (1997) stated,
“herein lies the problem of the hegemonic masculine ideal….boys don’t cry, or at least, they shouldn’t be
seen to.” Suppressing emotional expression can have a profound negative effect on discovery of identity.
The impact of emotional suppression becomes pointed when examining peer group influences of the
male gender.

Peer Group Influences

Examining the impact of the peer group on childhood behavior, Csikszentmihayli, Larson, and Prescott
(1977) discovered adolescents spend more time with friends and classmates than with their families or
other adults. According to the findings of Sprinthall and Collins (1988. p. 277) peer groups are not
randomly assembled but are composed of individuals who share similar values, backgrounds, and
interests. Thus, adolescents are most influenced by peers who are experiencing similar identity issues.
Deutsch and Gerald (1955) suggested peer groups provide two powerful influences on adolescent
thought: informational influence and normative influence. Informational influence refers to knowledge of
attitudes, behaviors, and values and the consequences of each in different situations. Normative
influence refers to the pressure placed on adolescents to behave in like manner of the group. As a result,
peer groups provide instruction, advice, and policing of its members. Implicit rules for behaving within and
without the group are typically established. Exploring identities through various roles becomes limited
when the group establishes such boundaries. Sociologists refer to this as ‘peer pressure’ and encourage
adolescents to break away from negative outcome governance. This provides a strong argument for
varied peer group involvement rather than limiting involvement with groups of similar value systems. The
perspectives of the peers within a group often prove strong and stereotyped. It is the exposure to
restricted stereotypical attitudes that narrows the opportunity for experimentation of individual roles.

Blakemore (2003) examined the influence of collective peer perspective. Children’s beliefs about violating
gender norms were studied. Although evaluation of norm violations were not consistently related to age,
boys assuming feminine postures in use of toys, hairstyles, and clothing were more negatively looked
upon by the peer group. Bogaret (2003) discovered similar beliefs were projected by the smaller peer
group entity of siblings. Homosexual men typically have a larger number of older brothers, on average,
than do heterosexual men. Bogaret (2003) argues that in these situations an interaction between older
bothers and “sex-typing” will occur. When a boy is high in femininity, a number of older brothers may
strongly predict a homosexual orientation and react to it. The reaction can make the younger sibling feel
even more out of place and influence gravitation toward the predicted orientation. Such studies reinforce
the power male-to-male interactions have over identity exploration. Interestingly enough, the influence of
peer group on identity does not seem to change when the group contains female members.

Studying the importance of social context in the emotional expression in males, Gray and Heatherington
(2003) found there is a significant impact of peer groups on the display of sadness by males. In their
trials, males expressed more sadness verbally when their turn followed someone who had expressed
sadness than when they followed someone who withheld expression of sadness. This suggested that the
expressiveness of others was disinhibiting of the male’s tendency to withhold emotional expression.
However, males did not tend to express more sadness in the presence of females than they did in the
presence of males. The findings further indicated that for some types of emotional expression it was more
important for males to have a male model of expression, emphasizing a stronger emotional identity with
the same gender. Nevertheless, such findings highlight the potency of peer group influence on gender
construct. Additional research suggests the type of activities groups participate in may influence a male’s
exploration of alternative identities as well.
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Influence of Leisure Activities

Following their study of adolescent leisure events, Kleiber, Larson, and Csikszentmihayli (1986)
determined that activities involving challenge, effort, and concentration are more beneficial to adolescent
development than other types. Sommers (2000, p.128) acknowledges these developmental activities as
support driven traits characteristic of adolescent males. Shaw, Kleiber, and Caldwell (1995) suggest
activities involving challenge, effort, and concentration represent important transitional situations for
adolescents that developmentally bridge the gap between childhood play and adult work. The concept of
challenge may also imply, through personal involvement, the testing of alternatives. However, traditional
leisure activities involving challenge, such as sports, may not provide the varied context necessary for
identity exploration.

For some, sports may be perceived as an important transitional activity for adolescents. Sports involve
mental and physical challenges, as well as provide an identity based on competence and identification
with a peer group (Klieber & Kirshnit, 1991). The identity of ‘jock’ (dominant, aggressive, win at all costs)
for a male is a traditional alternative for some adolescents. However, research findings suggest sports
activities play a limited role, at best, in the development of identity for adolescent males. Using a survey
and interview data, Kleiber, Larson, and Csikszentmihayli (1986) analyzed the influence of sports on 73
adolescents. For the young men who participated in the study sports and other physical activities did not
have an overall beneficial effect on identity development. Eder and Parker (1987) suggest this is so
because sports for adolescent males tend to reinforce traditional male gender roles. As a result, sports
narrow rather than expand the possibilities for exploration of alternative identities. Adolescents often feel
they have to prove themselves to be fearless, dominant, aggressive individuals through sports, rather
than feel the freedom to use sports as an exploration of alternative identities (Kleiber, Larson, and
Csikszentmihayli, 1986). Sporting activity may be popular among adolescent males because of the
greater amount of time available for leisure activities with compared to female counterparts.

Regarding extra-curricular activities, Shaw (1988) discovered males had more weekend time for leisure
and were more likely than females to acknowledge free choice of how they use their time for leisure
activities. This seems to indicate the power of gender as a force in the prioritizing of resources for leisure
activity participation. Kroska (2003) found this to be true while investigating gender differences in the
meaning of household chores. Her findings suggested typically a male’s proportion of household chores
is less than that assumed by female’s extending more ‘free’ time. Garton and Pratt (1987) found
adolescent leisure participation and interest was strongly associated with gender stereotypes. The
results were fewer restrictions on males for participating in outside activities, definitive ideas of “boy”
versus “girl” activities, and lowered amounts of total constraints for males to participate in leisure
activities. The lack of gender equality in leisure activity seems to reinforce the traditional male identity of
‘dominance’ for many young males (Kleiber, Larson, and Csikszentmihayli, 1986). Dominance is a theme
that carries over in the leisure activity of television viewing.

Television watching is a leisure activity that fills much time for adolescent males. In a preliminary
examination of leisure activity and identity information, Shaw, Kleiber, and Caldwell (1995) identified that
males on average spent more time watching television. Ironically, their findings suggested a negative
association between television viewing and identity development for males. The interview data collected
in the study suggested males find television watching more boring and less involving than other activities.
So why spend so much time watching? The answer may be paradoxal, in that television is inundated with
traditional stereotyping (Signorielli, 1989), thus the adolescent male retains some identity with most of the
male characters, yet they are satiated with the same action-hero roles. Such satiation rarely involves the
mental challenge or effort associated with identity development (Shaw, Kleiber, and Cladwell, 1995).
Thus, perhaps the most powerful of media inputs has limited affect on male identity development. This
cannot be said; however, for one of the influences that consumes a significant amount of adolescent time:
the classroom.

Influences of the Classroom

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The classroom affords boys with opportunities to express themselves in a variety of ways and to
experiment with gender identity without the traditional constraints noted with other influencing
environments. Examining teacher to student interactions in the classroom, Sadker and Sadker (1986)
found boys receive more teacher reactions of praise, criticism, and remediation than do girls. Baker
(1986) corroborated these findings with a study of classroom interaction that revealed males receive more
precise teacher comments in terms of scholarship and conduct. Fennema, Walberg, and Marrett (1985)
found teachers perspectives of males to be more positive and reinforcing of expressiveness in the
classroom, specifically noting males are assumed by teachers to have the ability to achieve socially and
academically.

The classroom sets a stage for male gender construct by allowing boys to discuss and experiment with
identity, although dominance once again surfaces even in the classroom. Evaluating gender bias in the
classroom, Scrimgeour (1993) found boys to be more assertive and visible, dominating classroom
interactions as much as 89% of the time. This same study also noted that history curriculum typically
included biographies of diverse male characters and classroom discussions of the characters and their
roles dominated teacher time. Interestingly enough, Scrimgeour (1993) noted there was no significant
difference whether a male or female teacher directed class activities. Boys were encouraged by both
genders to be openly expressive. Such unrestricted interaction has led Sadker and Sadker (1985) to
conclude the classroom generally positively impacts the development of male gender identity.

However, more recent attempts at deconstructing the classroom have unearthed a common thread that
has pervaded the literature reviewed thus far: the need for diversity to enhance role experimentation.
Addressing the difficulty of male construct in the classroom Martino (1995) examined the effect of
pedagogical approaches to the problem. Straying away from traditional role play, multiple positionality
within discourse was encouraged. It was theorized that allowing adolescent males to hypothetically and
through critical thinking assume differing roles in both the classroom and the literature would provide
greater exploration of alternative identities. The study concluded that a positioning of oneself in differing
roles disrupted the traditional stereotypes that lead to the enforcement of normative rules within the
classroom. Breaking the ‘norm’ barrier ultimately provided for greater role experimentation. This
conclusion was supported by a more recent classroom analysis of boy’s self-perception as literate.

Theorizing that encouragement to critically read discourse given gender options rather than assuming the
options presented, Davies (1997) demonstrated boys can adopt a non-stereotypical view of gender. With
critical social literacy activities gender becomes a dynamic force that changes with context. The
construction of ‘male’ is recognized and made revisable through positioning within various literary
contexts. The struggle toward dominant roles as traditional ‘male’ are broken and the freedom to enter
other non-dominant roles can then be explored. Presenting environments that allow for diverse
exploration within the classroom is essential to the promotion of male construct.

Conclusion

Traditional male stereotypes of dominance, aggression, and lack of emotional expression are still present
and promoted in some environments such as sports and television. Boys typically spend a significant
amount of time in both of these activities; however, they offer little opportunity for gender construct
secondary to their emphasis on traditional male expression. Activities requiring challenge, effort, and
concentration without the expectation of traditional expression seem to provide greater opportunities for
male gender construct. Such diversity in social and academic activity will provide the context for the much
needed role experimentation that leads to healthy construct.

Additionally, boys are expected to be more competent in dealing with emotions but lack the language and
safe environments for such expressions. The classroom appears to be positively encouraging male
emotional expression and discussion of various male roles and identities. While negotiating conflicting
messages about manly behavior, particularly expression of vulnerable emotions, caretakers would do well
to discuss and de-emphasize the traditional stereotypes that bombard adolescent mindsets. Taking the
lead from teachers in the classroom, caretakers can help adolescents critically examine multiple
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positioning of gender roles in various social contexts they experience on a daily basis. Such exercises will
open the door for gender role exploration.

Dominance is a pervasive theme presented to adolescent males in almost every social context. Through
the example of older males, adolescents can learn to find identity without adopting a role of supremacy.
Peer groups are influential on male identity development and when guided by mature males can provide
opportunity for role experimentation without control of environment or peers. However, caution is needed
as mentoring alone offers little change without the varied social contexts need for exploration (Kimmel,
2005). Group involvement should include variables such as: 1) peer groups with and without participants
of similar identity; 2) breakaway from groups with negative outcome governance; 3) groups with varied
gender participation.

Promotion of gender equality in leisure activity will also help to suppress the notion of assuming a
dominant role. Downplaying the traditional stereotypes of dominance, aggression, and emotional
inexpressiveness through mature male role-modeling in a variety of social contexts will encourage role
experimentation and positively effect male gender construct.

Gender identity differences are considered to be interpersonally and environmentally influenced (Pollack,
1995). If gender identity is significantly influenced by environmental factors then seeking combinations of
diverse experiences would provide an adolescent male with the opportunity to explore various roles and
in time find himself. Encouraging a carefully and individually planned activity schedule that maximizes the
opportunity for healthy construct is advised. Given the appropriate diversity in social engagements the
adolescent male will discover himself with fewer complications or stereo typical behaviors.

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