Journal

of

Leadership Education






...is an international, refereed journal that serves scholars and professional
practitioners engaged in leadership education.

...provides a forum for the development of the knowledge base and professional
practice of leadership education world wide.

...is made available through the continued support and efforts of the
membership of the Association of Leadership Educators.










Volume 3, Number 1

Summer 2004

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 3, Issue 1 - Summer 2004

The Journal of Leadership Education


The Journal of Leadership Education (JOLE) is the official publication of the
Association of Leadership Educators. The purpose of JOLE is to provide a forum
for development of the knowledge base and practice of leadership education. The
journal is intended to promote a dialogue that engages both academics and
practitioners. Thus, JOLE has a particular interest in applied research and it is the
premise of JOLE that feedback between theory and practice tests both and makes
each better. The journal provides several categories for submittals to promote
diversity of discussion from a variety of authors.

The members and board of the Association of Leadership Educators became
aware of the need for a journal about leadership education in the early 1990s. The
challenge of educating people about leadership is particularly provocative,
complex, and subtle. Other journals with leadership in the title focus primarily on
defining and describing leadership, and journals concerning education seldom
address the subject of leadership. Indeed, one common argument in society is that
leadership is innate (you have it or you don't) and teaching leadership is difficult
and often ineffective. This attitude is expressed, perhaps, in the dearth of
leadership courses on our university campuses.

In this context, JOLE provides a means to test the hypothesis that leadership
education is possible. Our journal sits at the nexus of education theory and
practice and leadership theory and practice, and from this divide, this mountain
pass, there is a need to look "both ways". Whether or not leadership education is a
discipline of its own is unclear, at least at present. If nothing else, by looking both
ways this journal hopes to provide a passageway between two disciplines,
enriching both in the process.

JOLE is an electronic journal open to all, both as writers and readers. The journal
has been conceived as an "on-line" journal that is available on the world-wide
web and is to be self-supporting. To this end, at some time in the future a fee may
be charged for publication. At present, all editorial, Board, and reviewer services
are provided without cost to JOLE or its members by volunteer scholars and
practitioners.



Copyright 2004 by the Association of Leadership Educators.

All rights reserved.


ISSN 1552-9045
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 3, Issue 1 - Summer 2004

Editorial Staff and Reviewers


Editor in Chief
• Christine Townsend, Texas A & M University

Associate Editor
• C. B. Crawford, Fort Hays State University

Editorial Reviewers
• Elizabeth Bolton, University of Florida
• Chester Bowling, Ohio State University
• Barry Boyd, Texas A&M University
• Christie Brungardt, Fort Hays State University
• Curtis L. Brungardt, Fort Hays State University
• Marilyn Corbin, Pennsylvania State University
• Kathryn Cox, Ohio State University
• Ken Culp III, University of Kentucky
• Renee Daugherty, Oklahoma State University
• Garee Earnest, Ohio State University
• Nancy Franz, University of New Hampshire
• Susan L. Fritz, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
• Scott Homan, Purdue University
• Tracy Hoover, Pennsylvania State University
• Nancy Huber, University of Arizona
• Kathleen Kelsey, Oklahoma State University
• Christine Langone, University of Georgia
• Jeri Marxman, University of Illinois
• Jeffery P. Miller, Innovative Leadership Solutions
• Lori Moore, University of Idaho
• Martha Nall, University of Kentucky
• Robin Orr, University of Illinois
• Penny Pennington, Oklahoma State University
• John Ricketts, University of Georgia
• Richard Rohs, University of Georgia
• Mark Russell, Purdue University
• Chris Sieverdes, Clemson University
• Wanda Sykes, North Carolina State University
• Kelleen Stine-Cheyne, Texas A&M University
• Laurie Thorp, Michigan State University
• Jim Ulrich, Antioch University
• Bill Weeks, Oklahoma State University
• Larry Wilson, University of Illinois
• Michael Woods, Michigan State University
• Karen Zotz, North Dakota State University
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 3, Issue 1 - Summer 2004

Table of Contents


From the Editor’s Clipboard
1
Christine Townsend, Texas A & M University

Volunteer Administration: Theoretical Dimensions of the Discipline
4
Nicole L. P. Stedman, Texas A & M University
Rick Rudd, University of Florida

Out of School Programming: Assessing the Impact on Asset
17
Development in Young People
Jill Walahoski, YMCA of Lincoln, NE
Kathleen Lodl, University of Nebraska, Lincoln

Return on Investment (ROI): Calculating the Monetary Return of a
27
Leadership Development Program
Frederick R. Rohs, University of Georgia

Transformational Leader as a Person-Centered Communicator:
40
Empirical Findings and Observations for Leadership Educators
C. B. Crawford, Fort Hays State University
C. Sue Strohkirch, Fort Hays State University

Perceptions of Leadership Skills as an Indicator of a Community’s
61
Social Capital
Elizabeth B. Bolton, University of Florida

Prescriptive Leadership Development
72
Mickael Z. Hackman, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs
Amy M. Kirlin, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs
Janice L. Tharp, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs

The Use of a Citizen Leader Model for Teaching Strategic Leadership
82
Christine A. Langone, University of Georgia

Submission Guidelines
89







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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 3, Issue 1 - Summer 2004

From the Editor’s Clipboard

How effective are leadership education programs? At times this question haunts
leadership educators as they struggle to validate training activities to sponsors.
But, in fact, as the leadership education discipline matures, research findings
indicate that, not only do leadership education programs work, they are very
important to the success of organizations.

The popular press supports the inclusion of leadership skills such as
communication, people skills, and problem solving. A USA Today reporter
indicated that employers from numerous fields seek college graduates with these
skills (Coplin, Bill. USA Today, June 10, 2004, page 15A). But, he found that
many college graduates, although well schooled in knowledge, lack these
important “soft skills” sought by employers. Articles such as Coplin’s help notify
the public that leadership education programs are necessary and critical to success
in obtaining employment.

However, leadership educators cannot rely on the popular press to support and
justify their programs. Conversations often contain information about failed
programs, short term attempts, and misunderstandings about the goals, outcomes,
and expectations of leadership education programs. Therefore, research and
discovery are critical to the sustenance of all types of leadership education
programs. Regardless of their context, it is important for leadership educators to
initiate the analysis of programs, clientele, and leadership theory.

The manuscripts in this issue of the Journal of Leadership Education provide the
theoretical frameworks for continued empirical insight into the success and
management of leadership education programs. The researchers show, in their
conclusions, that development of leadership skills and enhancement of human
capital increase a community’s or organization’s yield.

The Journal of Leadership Education continues to strive for excellence in
manuscript reviews and acceptance. For this issue, an initial acceptance rate of
38% was discovered with 8 submissions and 3 initially accepted manuscripts.
Revisions, as suggested by the review board, were received on four other
manuscripts for inclusion in this issue.

Respectfully submitted,


Christine Townsend, Texas A & M University.

Accepted Theoretical Feature

Volunteer Administration: Theoretical Dimensions of the Discipline

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 3, Issue 1 - Summer 2004

Nicole L. P. Stedman and Rick Rudd looked at volunteers to assess needed
processes for success. Their research findings supported development of
leadership training programs that incorporate seven identified competencies.

Accepted Research Features

Out of School Programming: Assessing the Impact on Asset Development in
Young People

Leadership programming for young people should be planned experiences. Jill
Walahoski and Kathleen Lodl investigated school-age youth development
programs and their impact on youth development. Their findings indicated that
programs are important and should be targeted to match the needs of the
participants.

Return on Investment (ROI): Calculating the Monetary Return of a
Leadership Development Program

Frederick R. Rohs began an important stream of investigations with his study of
how leadership programs enhance an organization’s profits. His results indicated
that leadership development programs do positively effect an organization’s
financial situation.

Transformational Leader as a Person-Centered Communicator: Empirical
Findings and Observations for Leadership Educators

C. B. Crawford and C. Sue Strohkirch authored a manuscript outlining the
relationship of transformational leadership skills with cognitive differentiation
and persuasive skills. In both cases, the higher their cognitive and persuasive
skills, the more transformational a leader is.

Accepted Application Briefs

Perceptions of Leadership Skills as an Indicator of a Community’s Social
Capital

Elizabeth B. Bolton studied two different community-oriented groups. Members
of the selected groups did not have a conceptual sense of each others’ leadership
capacity. Therefore, she suggested that community groups develop formal
interaction activities in order to enhance a community’s development
opportunities.

Prescriptive Leadership Development

Mickael Z. Hackman, Amy M. Kirlin, and Janice L. Tharp authored a brief that
outlined an undergraduate leadership development program. The students that
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 3, Issue 1 - Summer 2004

completed the program received instruction and application in leadership theory
and skills, community service, and mentoring.

The Use of a Citizen Leader Model for Teaching Strategic Leadership

Christine A. Langone presented a brief that described how volunteerism and
service learning impacts an undergraduate’s leadership development. Her model
showed a teaching strategy for enhancing leadership skills that are initiated in
volunteerism and service learning.

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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 3, Issue 1 - Summer 2004

Volunteer Administration: Theoretical
Dimensions of the Discipline


Nicole L. P. Stedman
Assistant Professor
107 Scoates Hall
Texas A & M
Department of Agricultural Education
College Station, Texas 77843-2116

Rick Rudd
Associate Professor
308A Rolfs Hall
University of Florida
Department of Agricultural Education and Communication
Gainesville, Florida, 32611-0540
rrudd@mail.ifas.ufl.edu


Abstract

The focus of this paper is to provide the profession of volunteer administration
(VA) a model outlining theoretical dimensions of the discipline. The dimensions
provided include the (a) processes, (b) discipline, (c) foundations, and (d)
theoretical base. Volunteer administration is the set of associated processes of
operating a volunteer program. Included are a compilation of competencies
identified by the Association for Volunteer Administration (2001) and 13
professionals that participated in a study conducted by Boyd (2002). The seven
processes are Commitment to the Profession, Organizational Leadership, Systems
Leadership, Accountability, Management Skills, Personal Skills, and
Organizational Culture. The foundational disciplines are Leadership and
Management, Community Development, and Teaching and Learning. Psychology
and sociology provide the empirical evidence that supports the foundations and
processes of VA. Professionals should look deeper into the theoretical base of
VA, in order to develop and encourage focused research initiatives and academic
curricula for volunteer administrators.

Introduction

The changing status of volunteer administration (VA) has led the profession away
from identifying with a specific discipline. No longer can a volunteer
administrator be seen within the organization as just a manager or just an
administrator. Today, that role is a combination of manager, leader, educator,
supervisor, evaluator, and so on with a number of established disciplines
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 3, Issue 1 - Summer 2004

influencing the theoretical foundation of VA. Experts have used these theories to
guide the development of pragmatic models for the profession and have included
concepts of administration, leadership, and management with the goal of
establishing guidelines for volunteer organizations. However, there are weak ties
to the specific theoretical underpinnings that comprise VA.

Over the past decade VA has been engaged in a process of professionalization
(Fisher & Cole, 1993). During this professionalization process, the “vocation”
seeks to establish itself as a true and recognized profession. Houle (1980)
contends there are 14 characteristics that describe a vocation in the
professionalization process. The first five characterize practitioners in the
vocation and the second set of nine describes the vocation as a whole. The
Association for Volunteer Administration (AVA) has led the cause in developing
VA as a profession. The AVA has published literature, developed networks,
established an ethical code, researched competencies, developed training and
certification programs, and has set the standard for ensuring that the
characteristics outlined by Houle are addressed.

In a further attempt to define the vocation of VA as a profession, the AVA has
developed a set of competencies determined by experts in the field and verified
through surveys of practitioners. Core competencies consist of five areas: (a)
commitment to the profession, (b) planning and conceptual design, (c) resource
development and management, (d) accountability, and (e) perspective and
responsiveness (Association of Volunteer Administrators, 2001). Additionally, a
recent study by Boyd (2002) outlined competencies that would be required by
volunteer coordinators in 2010, these competencies were identified by 13
professionals in the field of VA. The five main competency areas identified were:
organizational leadership, systems leadership, organizational culture, personal
skills, and management skills. In a comparison of the competency-sets, it becomes
evident that they are equivalent in many of the associated skills.

However, the second characteristic of professionalization, the one that this paper
specifically addresses is, “Master the essential information and theory that
constitute its knowledge base and be knowledgeable about the theoretical
disciplines that contribute to that base” (Fisher & Cole, 1993). As VA has
developed, emphasis has been placed on the similarities of volunteer
administration to other management and administrative careers. The field has
depended heavily on the concepts and theories of business management,
personnel management, and public-service administration to create a knowledge
base for volunteer administrators. Yet, the discipline lacks the empirical evidence
that supports the development of educational programs and curriculum for
volunteer administrators based on these theories.

As models are developed, competencies and skills identified, the vocation
intensifies its engagement in the professionalization process. However, the ability
of researchers, curriculum developers, and educators to ensure the soundness of
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 3, Issue 1 - Summer 2004

their teaching and research practices hinges on further identification and
exploration of the dimensions of volunteer administration.

Purpose

The intention of this paper is to propose a model of the dimensions of VA and to
prepare a comprehensive theoretical framework for the profession to consider.

The Dimensions of Volunteer Administration

The model proposed provides the dimensions of VA and includes the theoretical
base, foundation, and processes of the discipline. The theoretical base is in
psychology and sociology, the foundation stems from Leadership and
Management, Community Development, and Teaching and Learning. The
processes are Organizational Leadership, Systems Leadership, Accountability,
Management Skills, Personal Skills, Commitment to the Profession and
Organizational Culture. Each level of the model will be explored in detail and
supporting documentation offered. The researchers developed the conceptual
model (see Figure 1) which depicts the dimensions of volunteer administration.
Researchers adapted the model from Williams (1991) which suggested the
theoretical dimensions of Agricultural Education.

Figure 1. Dimensions of volunteer administration.
Commit
Organiza
Systems
Manage
Organiz
ment to
tional
Account
Personal
Processes
Leaders
ment
ational
the
Leadersh
ability
Skills
hip
Skills
Culture
Professi
ip
on
Volunteer
Discipline
Administration
Leadership
Community
Teaching and
Foundation
and
Development
Learning
Management
Theoretical
Psychology
Base
and Sociology

There are five key contexts which volunteer administration currently operates.
The primary contexts of VA are Faith-Based Initiatives/Church Organizations and
Not-for-Profits. These two contexts are the most reported sources for voluntary
activity (Independent Sector, 2001). The three auxiliary contexts include, the
Cooperative Extension Service, Education (K-12 and colleges/universities), and
Businesses/Industry. These auxiliary contexts report lower levels of volunteer
contributions than the primary contexts and may not depend solely on a volunteer
staff to maintain day-to-day operations of the organization. It is these contexts,
which determine the importance of certain processes over others.

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