Language Shift and Linguistic Markets in Barcelona

Margaret Simmons
Nagano University, University of Queensland


1. Background

This research concerns language maintenance and shift by adult speakers of Catalan and Spanish in
Barcelona. Data has been collected through personal interviews and questionnaires with the aim of
understanding individual sociolinguistic situations and language choices. In this paper language shift
behavior by individual speakers is viewed as linguistic mobility. The paper discusses the concept of
shift, what kinds of behaviors constitute shift and indications of shift in the present data. Shift
behavior is reported by both L1 Catalan speakers and L1 Spanish speakers. The findings are also
considered in relationship to the concept of linguistic markets (Bourdieu, 1977, 1982, 1991).

2. Theoretical
considerations

Language contact is a dynamic problem involving many factors, and many theoretical
perspectives are useful in studying various aspects of the problem. However, it is difficult to approach
researching the overall concerns of language contact, bilingualism, shift and language loss by using
just one theoretical viewpoint. A theoretical framework based in the concept of linguistic markets,
but with elaboration from other theories, is being developed for the purposes of this study (Simmons,
2000).
The concept of linguistic markets (Bourdieu, 1977, 1982, 1991) provides a background where a
number of other theories can be encompassed or interrelated. Individuals understand the value of
their linguistic variety as well as the value of other languages present in their environments, and based
on this awareness, individuals make decisions as to which languages to know and which languages to
use in various situations. Within the overall market there are smaller sociolinguistic markets, or
networks (Gal, 1979; Milroy, 1980), to which individuals belong and which influence individual’s
more directly. A speaker may wish to change networks either permanently or temporarily in
relationship to one’s social identity (Tajfel, 1974), and this maybe associated with changes in linguistic
behaviors as well. Achieving linguistic mobility within the market involves the speaker’s desired
identity and linguistic choices (see Bourhis and Giles, 1977; Giles et al., 1977; Giles and Smith, 1979;
Giles and Johnson, 1987), access to the desired group and also recognition by others to confirm that
the individual can be accepted as a legitimate speaker in that situation (Bourdieu, 1977, 1982, 1991;
Austin, 1962).
We would expect individuals to adopt profitable behaviors that enhance their well being (Homans,
1958) and that contribute positively to their social identity (Tajfel, 1974). Not everyone applies the
same value to the involved languages and not everyone follows the trends. Linguistic market
conditions also change as a result of large scale factors as well as due to the influence of individual’s
behaviors. In the case of Catalonia on the large scale Catalan and Spanish are co-official languages.
However, there is a great variation in individual bilingualism and in the amount of each of the two
languages in an individual’s sociolinguistic network. Catalan and Spanish can each be viewed as
having both dominant and minority characteristics (Simmons 2000), so language shift could be
expected in either direction, or maintenance with little shift behavior could also be expected.

3. Language Shift


© 2003 Margaret Simmons. Selected Proceedings of the First Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, ed. Lotfi
Sayahi, 11-17. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. www.lingref.com, document #1003.

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If monolingualism is considered as the base for full language maintenance, any use of L2
constitutes a kind of shift even if only temporarily. Individuals who are able to use more than one
language, even with varying degrees of skill, have options to maintain L1 or shift from L1 by choosing
L2. Choosing L2 probably involves some confidence as well as ability in L2, and indicates that the
individual has linguistic mobility.
A comprehensive view of language maintenance and shift also realizes that a prerequisite to actual
use of an L2 is ability. A number of studies address knowledge of the Catalan language on the part
of adults (see Báez de Aguilar González, 1997; Reixach et al., 1997; Simmons, 1998). Although
knowledge and ability in a language create the potential for use, it is actual use that allows an
individual to participate in linguistic markets.
For monolinguals use of L1 is 100%, but multilinguals living in a multilingual social environment
have to allocate some of their linguistic time and space to other languages. So, for multilingual
individuals it is important to know how much linguistic territory is allocated to each language in the
individual’s daily life.
Change in the amounts of use of each language over time may indicate changes in the speakers’
sociolinguistic environment or changes in the speakers’ expression of their desired social identity. It
may also indicate changes in access to learning and using a particular language. For example, in
Catalunya, political changes restricted access to the Catalan language from the mid 1930’s to the mid
1970’s, and then from the late 1970’s until the present, access to Catalan has been increased through
political, social and cultural activity.
Where two individuals of the same L1 who are also speakers of the same L2 communicate with
each other in the L2 rather than their L1, there is a clear case of shift (Jaspaert and Kroon, 1991).
When a bilingual and a monolingual are conversing, it is necessary for the bilingual interlocutor to
speak the language of the monolingual. However, where L2 is used among bilingual L1 in-group
members, it favors L2 over L1. In Catalunya, prior to the late 1970s, Catalan was restricted and the
sociopolitical environment favored the use of Spanish by all speakers including among L1 speakers of
Catalan in some situations. Additionally, related to the earlier sociopolitical environment, most L1
Spanish speakers remained monolinguals and most L1 Catalan speakers became bilinguals; however,
more recently, many L1 Spanish speakers have become bilinguals with varying degrees of skill and use
of Catalan.
Another kind of shift is a change in the main language of an individual’s daily life from L1 to
another language. This type of shift is in effect a self reclassification. The reasons may include
changes in the individual’s sociolinguistic environment, such as the language used in the work place or
language of the spouse and friends, or maybe related to the individual’s preferences regarding
language. In view of Martín’s (1998) finding that a history of shift favors shift, it is also of interest
to know whether or not others in the individual’s environment have changed their main language, such
as the speaker’s parents, spouse or children. The present data also shows the presence of other
speakers with linguistic mobility in the networks of speakers who report having changed the language
of their daily life.
Another more subtle indication of linguistic mobility is change in the features of pronunciation of
the L1. Báez de Aguilar González (1997) discusses modifications in the speech of L1 speakers of
the Andalusian variety of Spanish living in the area of Barcelona. Although modifications in
pronunciation did not necessarily adopt features of Catalan, some Andalusian characteristics were
decreased or eliminated.

4. Findings related to shift
4.1 Method and samples

The data was collected in Barcelona in 1991 and in 2000, using a questionnaire. The
questionnaire used in 2000 was significantly expanded from the 1991 questionnaire. Participants
were 20 years or older and residents of Barcelona city or the nearby area. In both time periods, data
was collected in three ways: 1) personal interview guided by the questionnaire, 2) distribution of the
questionnaire allowing participants to fill it out at the distribution site or 3) at their leisure and
returning it later to the researcher. In some cases participants requested extra copies of the

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questionnaire to distribute to a family member or friend, and these were also returned to the researcher.
Interviews were done at various locations in Barcelona by the present author. Questionnaires
were distributed at multiple sites but all were associated with language education where classes of
Catalan, English or other languages were available for adults, so the majority of participants were
attending some type of language class. For the purposes of this paper, all responses in each time
period have been combined, and the details of data collection method for any particular participant will
not be mentioned.
The 1991 sample includes 85 participants who stated Spanish as their L1, 85 participants who
stated Catalan as their L1, and 12 participants who stated their L1 as other languages, and 2
participants who insisted on both CS (Spanish) and CT (Catalan) as their first languages. The 2000
sample includes 17 participants who stated their L1 as CS, 13 who stated their L1 as CT and 2
participants who stated their L1 as both CS and CT.
The questionnaire was lengthy and the problem of incomplete responses was frequent. For any
particular item, the number of received responses is often small and is indicated in parenthesis the
tables. Only the results from L1 CS and L1 CT speakers are presented here. CS indicates any
variety of Spanish in Spain or elsewhere. CT includes any variety of Catalan from the region of
Catalonia, but does not include Mallorquin, Menorquin, Valencian, etc.

4.2 Amount of Catalan used

Participants were asked to estimate the amount of Catalan they use in daily life compared to
the amount of Spanish used. The percents shown in Table 1 are the average amounts of Catalan used
by the sample of L1 CT speakers and the sample of L1 CS speakers considering hearing, speaking,
reading and writing for both time periods. The use of CT and CS combined is considered to be
100%, so, as an example, a result of 74% for speaking Catalan also implies that the other 26% of
speaking is done in Spanish.

Amount of CATALAN used
1991
2000

L1 CT
L1 CS
L1 CT
L1 CS
Hear
65% (n = 55)
47% (n = 53)
64% (n = 13)
42% (n = 16)
Speak
74% (n = 61)
33% (n = 56)
71% (n = 13)
31% (n = 15)
Read
50% (n = 60)
26% (n = 53)
47% (n = 13)
21% (n = 14)
Write
59% (n = 61)
17% (n = 53)
58% (n = 13)
17% (n = 15)
Table 1


As expected, L1 Catalan speakers report more use of Catalan than of Spanish, and L1
Spanish speakers indicate more use of Spanish than of Catalan. However, there is significant use of
the L2 in both groups. For example, in the 1991 L1 CS group, the average use of Catalan is 33% or
1/3 of overall speech, and 26% of reading is done in Catalan. There is not much difference in the
percentages reported in 1991 and those in 2000.

Participants were also asked whether or not they thought the amounts of Catalan and
Spanish used at the time of data collection, in 1991, were more or less than the amounts they had used
at some previous time. The 2000 questionnaire contained the same question but more specifically in
regard to the period between 1990 and 2000. The period over which change occurred is different for
each participant. The results in Table 2 are the average percent for the group of participants
responding to the item and can only indicate a general trend in the direction of change in the amounts
of use of each language. An increase in the amount of Catalan used also implies a decrease in the
amount of Spanish used, and a decrease in the amount of Catalan implies an increase in the amount of
Spanish used.

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Change in the amount of CATALAN used.
1991
2000

L1 CT
L1 CS
L1 CT
L1 CS
Hear
16% (n = 24)
21% (n = 28)
8% (n = 12)
4% (n = 15)
Speak
19% (n = 25)
24% ( n = 31)
6% (n = 12)
6% (n = 14)
Read
16% (n = 24)
18% (n = 27)
7% (n = 12)
-- 6% (n = 14)
Write
29% (n = 23)
9% (n = 29)
11% (n = 12)
-- 7% (n = 15)
Table 2

The 1991 sample shows an increase in the use of Catalan in 1991 compared with use in periods
prior to 1991 in all four areas of use. While the 2000 sample indicates increases in the amount of
Catalan being heard in the environments of the speakers and also in speaking, there is a decrease
reported in the use of written Catalan. One factor to be considered is the difference in educational
experience of speakers in 2000 compared to those of the 1991 sample. Speakers in the 2000 may
have had more of their education in Catalan and some decrease in use may be due to having completed
school and a decrease in required use of Catalan. Also, in terms of efforts for the normalization of
Catalan, the degree of changes between the late seventies and 1991 may have been greater than those
between 1990 and 2000.
The amount of Catalan in the environment, or reported hearing and speaking, have increased in
both time periods as reported by participants of both L1 groups, perhaps indicating a market trend in
the positive value of Catalan as well as effects of normalization efforts to increase the amount of
Catalan in media and daily life. The profiles of individuals who report using large amounts of L2 or
who have increased the amount of use of L2 are important for understanding other factors related to
linguistic mobility. An overview of the 1991 L1 CS speakers and their utilization ratios of Catalan
and Spanish in relationship to other factors in their sociolinguistic networks can be found in Simmons
(2002).

4.3 Shift, maintenance or spread

Participants were asked if they sometimes speak Spanish to L1 Catalan interlocutors and if they
sometimes speak Catalan to L1 Spanish interlocutors. If L2 is used with members of the same L1,
there is shift; if L1 is used with bilinguals of the other L1, the other interlocutor accommodates to the
first speaker’s L1 resulting in a kind of spread of the first speaker’s L1. The results of 1991and 2000
are shown in Tables 3 and 4.

Shift, maintenance or spread on the part of bilinguals of both L1 groups in 1991 sample
L1 Catalan speakers
Do you speak
Do you speak
L1 Spanish speakers
(n = 50)
CS to L1 CT?
CT to L1 CS?
(n = 40)
Maintenance 10 NO
NO
8 Maintenance
Shift
0
YES
NO
12
Spread of CS
Spread of CT
26
NO
YES
5
Shift
Flexible 14
YES
YES
15 Flexible
Table 3

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Shift, maintenance or spread on the part of bilinguals of both L1 groups in 2000 sample
Bilingual L1 Catalan
Do you speak
Do you speak
Bilingual L1 Spanish
(n = 13)
CS to L1 CT?
CT to L1 CS?
(n = 17)
Maintenance 1 NO
NO 1 Maintenance
Shift
2
YES
NO
13
Spread of CS
Spread of CT
9
NO
YES
1
Shift
Flexible 1
YES YES
2 Flexible
Table 4


In both samples, and in both L1 groups a large number of speakers indicate that they use
their own L1 with members of their own group and members of the other group. And, in terms of
each sample, the ratio of speakers who report spread of their own L1 is higher in the 2000 sample than
in the 1991 sample. The ratio of speakers reporting flexible use of the languages is lower in the 2000
group.
In 1991, no L1 CT speakers reported the second combination of speaking Spanish with
other L1 CT speakers but not speaking Catalan to L1 CS individuals; however, in the 2000 sample this
behavior is reported. The flexible combination also indicates shift because of use of L2 with L1
group members, but this may be countered to some extent by also using L1 with members of the other
language group. Exploring the personal characteristics and situations of those who report using L2
with members of their own L1 group is not within the scope of this paper, but is an important aspect of
the research.

4.4 Change in the main language of everyday life

The 2000 data collection was done with a revised questionnaire which asked participants to clarify
the language they first learned early in life as compared with that which they presently consider to be
the main language of their daily life. In most cases, the same language was stated for both categories.
However, a few participants in both L1 groups indicated a change. Details of those participants
indicating the main language of their daily life, shown by the symbol LM, as different from their L1
are displayed in Tables 5a and 5b.

Participants who state their present LM (main language) as different from their L1 (2000 sample)
hm
wk
soc
spk
rd
wrt
cs to ct to
code L1 LM
pob age
sex %
%
%
%
%
%
L1ct
Lcs
1
cs 2 bcn 23 f 5 80 70 60 50 80 yes yes
2
cs ct bcn 39 m 98 70 40 60 5 1 no
no
3
cs 2 bcn 22 f 0 100
50 50 50 50 no
yes
4
cs ct bcn 58 f 0 95 50 x x 0 yes no














5
ct 2 cata 24 m 100
95 75 75 10 10 no
yes
6
ct 2 bcn 30 m 25 50 50 50 50 50 yes no
Table 5a

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participant father mother spouse
children

code L1 LM L1 LM L1 LM L1 LM L1 LM bilg prefer
1 cs 2 gal cs gal cs x
x
x
x yes cs
2 cs ct cs cs cs cs ct ct
ct
ct yes cs
3 cs 2 cs cs cs cs x x
x
x yes same
4 cs ct cs x 2 x cs x
cs cs yes same













5 ct 2 ct cs 2 ct 2 2
x
x yes same
6
ct
2 ct ct cs 2 eng 2/eng 2/eng 2/eng yes same
Table 5b

Six of the 32 speakers in the 2000 sample reported their present main language to be different than
their L1. In Table 5a, the amount of Catalan used at home varies, but all speakers in both L1 groups
report 50% or more Catalan in the work place. All speakers report at least 50% Catalan for their
overall use of spoken language. In Table 5b shows the L1 and LM for other members of the
participants sociolinguistic network. Participants 1 and 5 reported that both their father and the
mother had also changed the main language of their daily life. Participant 6 reported that his mother
and wife had changed the main language of their daily lives. Though this is a small sample, these
findings seem to offer support for Martin’s (1998) findings that a previous shift facilitates shift.
Participants 2, 5 and 6 report the L1 of their spouse as different than their own L1. Participants
2 and 5 report the language of their children as being different than their own L1 and the same as the
L1 of their spouses. It is possible that marriage to a spouse of a different L1 changed the
participant’s sociolinguistic environment and network, giving the participant access to the other
language group and also recognition as a legitimate speaker of that group’s language (see Simmons,
2002).
All participants consider themselves to be bilingual in Catalan and Spanish. No one of these six
individuals stated a preference for Catalan. Two of the L1 CS group stated a preference for Spanish
while the other four speakers stated they have no preference for either language over the other.

5. Discussion

The findings show that the same individual may report more than one type of shift. In the data
samples of this study there seems to be a move towards more use of Catalan overall, as indicated by
the average percents for each L1 group’s reported use of Catalan and Spanish. This is expected in
that Catalan has been recently re-officialized after having been restricted, whereas there was no change
in the official status of Castilian, except of course, that it would share official status with Catalan in
Catalunya.
The sociolinguistic markets of 1991 and 2000 are not the same. It seems reasonable that moves
by adult speakers towards Catalan would have been greater between the political change in the late
1970’s and 1991 than they would have been between 1990 and 2000, and the rate, or curve, of change
would slow somewhat over time.
The 2000 sample indicates some linguistic mobility towards Spanish on the part of L1 Catalan
speakers, whereas this was not noted in the 1991 sample. However, the sample also indicates
movement towards Catalan by several L1 Spanish speakers as well.
In terms of method, it is important to document multiple indications of shift, or of maintenance, by
the same individual to confirm self reported behaviors. It is also important to request information
about the individual’s sociolinguistic situation and about the linguistic behaviors of others in the

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individual’s social network.
The present study has many limitations and is in effect work in progress; however, in pursuing
various aspects of the problem of language shift in terms of both theoretical views and data collection,
some useful reference points have been found for improving questionnaires and theoretical
perspectives regarding linguistic mobility of individuals in linguistic markets. Every language
contact situation consists of different factors, but it may be possible to design a questionnaire that can
be widely applicable. The situation of Catalan and Spanish in contact is very dynamic in terms of
official language policy and planning as well as in interpersonal interactions. Thus there is a high
degree of language awareness, and also many possibilities for linguistic mobility as well as for
maintenance of both languages. Further research needs to continue to observe the large scale
sociolinguisitic factors as well as to further research the profiles of individuals concerning their
linguistic mobility.

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Selected Proceedings of the First
Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics
edited by Lotfi Sayahi
Cascadilla Proceedings Project Somerville, MA 2003
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Simmons, Margaret. 2003. Language Shift and Linguistic Markets in Barcelona. In Selected Proceedings of the
First Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, ed. Lotfi Sayahi, 11-17. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings
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Simmons, Margaret. 2003. Language Shift and Linguistic Markets in Barcelona. In Selected Proceedings of the
First Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, ed. Lotfi Sayahi, 11-17. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings
Project. www.lingref.com, document #1003.

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Document Outline

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