LHC Machine

PUBLISHED BY INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING AND SISSA
RECEIVED: January 14, 2007
REVISED: June 3, 2008
ACCEPTED: June 23, 2008
PUBLISHED: August 14, 2008
THE CERN LARGE HADRON COLLIDER: ACCELERATOR AND EXPERIMENTS
2008 JINST 3 S08001
LHC Machine
Lyndon Evans1 and Philip Bryant (editors)2
European Organization for Nuclear Research
CERN CH-1211, Genève 23, Switzerland
E-mail: lyn.evans@cern.ch
ABSTRACT: The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN near Geneva is the world’s newest and
most powerful tool for Particle Physics research. It is designed to collide proton beams with
a centre-of-mass energy of 14 TeV and an unprecedented luminosity of 1034 cm?2s?1. It can
also collide heavy (Pb) ions with an energy of 2.8 TeV per nucleon and a peak luminosity of
1027 cm?2s?1. In this paper, the machine design is described.
KEYWORDS: Acceleration cavities and magnets superconducting; Beam-line instrumentation;
Hardware and accelerator control systems; Instrumentation for particle accelerators and storage
rings — high energy.
1Corresponding author.
2This report is an abridged version of the LHC Design Report (CERN-2004-003).
c 2008 IOP Publishing Ltd and SISSA
http://www.iop.org/EJ/jinst/

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Contents
1
Introduction
1
2
Main machine layout and performance
3
2.1
Performance goals
3
2.2
Performance limitations
4
2.2.1
Beam-beam limit
4
2008 JINST 3 S08001
2.2.2
Mechanical aperture
4
2.2.3
Maximum dipole ?eld and magnet quench limits
5
2.2.4
Energy stored in the circulating beams and in the magnetic ?elds
5
2.2.5
Heat load
5
2.2.6
Field quality and dynamic aperture
5
2.2.7
Collective beam instabilities
6
2.2.8
Luminosity lifetime
6
2.2.9
Average turnaround time
7
2.2.10 Integrated luminosity
7
2.3
Lattice layout
7
2.4
Corrector circuits
11
2.4.1
Arc orbit corrector magnets MCB
11
2.4.2
Chromaticity or lattice sextupoles, MS
11
2.4.3
Lattice skew sextupoles, MSS
11
2.4.4
Tune-shift or tuning quadrupoles, MQT
11
2.4.5
Arc skew quadrupole corrector magnets, MQS
12
2.4.6
Landau damping or lattice octupoles, MO
12
2.4.7
Spool-piece corrector magnets
12
2.5
High luminosity insertions (IR1 and IR5)
12
2.6
Medium luminosity insertion in IR2
13
2.7
Beam cleaning insertions in IR3 and IR7
15
2.8
RF insertion in IR4
16
2.9
Beam abort insertion in IR6
16
2.10 Medium luminosity insertion in IR8
16
3
Magnets
19
3.1
Overview
19
3.2
Superconducting cable
19
3.3
Main dipole cold mass
22
3.4
Dipole cryostat
27
3.5
Short straight sections of the arcs
27
3.6
Orbit and multipole correctors in the arcs
29
3.7
Insertion magnets
30
3.8
Dispersion suppressors
31
– ii –

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3.9
Matching section quadrupoles
32
3.10 Matching section separation dipoles
35
3.11 Low-beta triplets
40
3.12 Compensator dipoles in ALICE and LHCb experiments
44
4
The RF systems and beam feedback
46
4.1
Introduction
46
4.2
Main 400 MHz RF Accelerating System (ACS)
48
4.3
Staged 200 MHz Capture System (ACN)
51
4.4
Transverse damping and feedback system (ADT)
52
2008 JINST 3 S08001
4.5
Low-level RF
53
5
Vacuum system
55
5.1
Overview
55
5.2
Beam vacuum requirements
55
5.3
Beam vacuum in the arcs and dispersion suppressors
56
5.3.1
Beam screen (?gure 5.1)
57
5.3.2
Cold interconnects (?gures 5.2 and 5.3)
57
5.3.3
Beam position monitor bodies and supports (?gure 5.4)
59
5.4
Beam vacuum in the insertions
59
5.4.1
Beam screen
59
5.4.2
Cold interconnections and Cold-Warm Transitions
60
5.4.3
Room temperature beam vacuum in the ?eld free regions
61
5.4.4
Beam vacuum in room temperature magnets
61
5.4.5
Bake-out and NEG activation
61
5.5
Insulation vacuum
62
5.6
Vacuum controls
63
6
Powering and protection
64
6.1
Overview
64
6.2
Powering circuits
64
6.3
Powering equipment
69
6.3.1
Current leads
69
6.3.2
Electrical feedboxes
69
6.3.3
Superconducting links
70
6.3.4
Bus-bar systems
71
6.3.5
Normal conducting cables
71
6.4
Protection equipment
71
6.4.1
Quench heater power supplies
72
6.4.2
Energy extraction systems
72
6.4.3
13 kA circuits
73
6.4.4
600 A extraction equipment
75
6.4.5
Cold diodes
75
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6.4.6
Controllers
76
6.4.7
Supervision of the Quench Protection System (QPS)
76
6.5
Operational aspects and reliability
76
6.5.1
Electrical quality assurance
76
6.5.2
Quench detectors
77
6.5.3
Quench Heater Power Supplies (DQHDS)
77
6.5.4
Energy extraction
78
7
Cryogenic system
80
7.1
Overview
80
2008 JINST 3 S08001
7.2
General architecture
81
7.3
Temperature levels
83
7.4
Cooling scheme
84
7.4.1
Arc and dispersion suppressor cooling loops
84
7.4.2
Matching section cooling loops
86
7.4.3
Inner triplet cooling loops
86
7.5
Cryogenic distribution
86
7.6
Refrigeration plants
88
7.6.1
4.5 k refrigerators
88
7.6.2
1.8 k refrigerators
88
7.7
Cryogen storage and management
88
8
Beam instrumentation
90
8.1
Beam position measurement
90
8.2
Beam current transformers
92
8.3
Beam loss system
93
8.4
Transverse pro?le measurement
94
8.5
Longitudinal pro?le measurement
94
8.6
Luminosity monitors
95
8.7
Tune, chromaticity, and betatron coupling
96
8.7.1
General tune measurement system
96
8.7.2
AC dipole
96
8.7.3
High sensitivity tune measurement system
96
8.7.4
Chromaticity measurement
97
8.7.5
Betatron coupling measurement
97
8.8
Long-range beam-beam compensation
97
9
Control system
98
9.1
Introduction
98
9.2
Architecture
98
9.2.1
Overall architecture
98
9.2.2
Network
100
9.3
Equipment access
101
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9.3.1
The VME and PC Front End Computers
101
9.3.2
The PLCs
102
9.3.3
The supported ?eldbuses
102
9.3.4
The WorldFIP ?eldbus
102
9.3.5
The Pro?bus ?eldbus
103
9.4
Servers and operator consoles
103
9.5
Machine timing and UTC
103
9.5.1
Central beam and cycle management
103
9.5.2
Timing generation, transmission and reception
104
2008 JINST 3 S08001
9.5.3
UTC for LHC time stamping
104
9.5.4
UTC generation, transmission and reception
105
9.5.5
NTP time protocol
105
9.6
Data management
105
9.6.1
Of?ine and online data repositories
106
9.6.2
Electrical circuits
107
9.6.3
Control system con?guration
107
9.7
Communication and software frameworks
108
9.7.1
FEC software framework
108
9.7.2
Controls Middleware
108
9.7.3
Device access model
109
9.7.4
Messaging model
110
9.7.5
The J2EE framework for machine control
110
9.7.6
The UNICOS framework for industrial controls
111
9.7.7
The UNICOS object model
112
9.8
Control room software
113
9.8.1
Software for LHC beam operation
113
9.8.2
Software requirements
113
9.8.3
The software development process
114
9.8.4
Software for LHC Industrial Systems
115
9.9
Services for operations
115
9.9.1
Analogue signals transmission
115
9.9.2
Alarms
116
9.9.3
Logging
117
9.9.4
Post mortem
118
10 Beam dumping
120
10.1 System and main parameters
120
10.2 Reliability
122
10.2.1 MKD
122
10.2.2 MKB
123
10.2.3 MSD
123
10.2.4 Vacuum system and TDE
123
10.2.5 Post-mortem
123
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10.2.6 Synchronisation
123
10.2.7 Energy tracking
123
10.2.8 Other protection
124
10.3 Main equipment subsystems
124
10.3.1 Fast-pulsed extraction magnets MKD
124
10.3.2 Generator
125
10.3.3 Fast-pulsed dilution magnets MKB
126
10.3.4 Extraction septum magnets MSD
127
10.3.5 Beam dump absorber block TDE
127
2008 JINST 3 S08001
10.3.6 Activation
129
11 Beam injection
130
11.1 Overview
130
11.2 Injection septa
131
11.3 Injection kickers
132
11.4 Control system
136
11.5 Beam instrumentation
136
12 Injection chain
138
12.1 Introduction
138
12.2 LHC and SPS requirements
139
12.3 Scheme to produce the LHC proton beam in the PS complex
140
12.3.1 Space charge issues in PSB and PS
140
12.3.2 LHC bunch train generation in the PS
142
12.3.3 Initial debunching-rebunching scheme
142
12.3.4 Multiple splitting scheme
143
12.4 Overview of hardware changes
143
13 LHC as an ion collider
146
13.1 LHC parameters for lead ions
146
13.1.1 Nominal ion scheme
147
13.1.2 Early ion scheme
147
13.2 Orbits and optical con?gurations for heavy ions
148
13.3 Longitudinal dynamics
149
13.4 Effects of nuclear interactions on the LHC and its beams
149
13.5 Intra-beam scattering
150
13.6 Synchrotron radiation from lead ions
150
LHC machine acronyms
153
Bibliography
154
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Chapter 1
Introduction
2008 JINST 3 S08001
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is a two-ring-superconducting-hadron accelerator and collider
installed in the existing 26.7 km tunnel that was constructed between 1984 and 1989 for the CERN
LEP machine. The LEP tunnel has eight straight sections and eight arcs and lies between 45 m and
170 m below the surface on a plane inclined at 1.4% sloping towards the Léman lake. Approxi-
mately 90% of its length is in molasse rock, which has excellent characteristics for this application,
and 10% is in limestone under the Jura mountain. There are two transfer tunnels, each approxi-
mately 2.5 km in length, linking the LHC to the CERN accelerator complex that acts as injector.
Full use has been made of the existing civil engineering structures, but modi?cations and additions
were also needed. Broadly speaking, the underground and surface structures at Points 1 and 5 for
ATLAS and CMS, respectively, are new, while those for ALICE and LHCb, at Points 2 and 8,
respectively, were originally built for LEP.
The approval of the LHC project was given by the CERN Council in December 1994. At that
time, the plan was to build a machine in two stages starting with a centre-of-mass energy of 10 TeV,
to be upgraded later to 14 TeV. However, during 19956, intense negotiations secured substantial
contributions to the project from non-member states, and in December 1996 the CERN Council
approved construction of the 14 TeV machine in a single stage. The non-member state agreements
ranged from ?nancial donations, through inkind contributions entirely funded by the contributor,
to in-kind-contributions that were jointly funded by CERN and the contributor. Con?dence for this
move was based on the experience gained in earlier years from the international collaborations that
often formed around physics experiments. Overall, non-member state involvement has proven to
be highly successful.
The decision to build LHC at CERN was strongly in?uenced by the cost saving to be made
by re-using the LEP tunnel and its injection chain. The original LEP machine was only made pos-
sible by something that was once referred to by N. Cabbibo, INFN, Italy, as the exo-geographic
transition. Although at its founding, CERN was endowed with a generous site in the Swiss coun-
tryside, with an adjacent site for expansion into the even emptier French countryside, the need for
space outstripped that available when the super-proton synchrotron, or SPS, was proposed. In this
instance, the problem was solved by extensive land purchases, but the next machine, LEP, with its
27 km ring, made this solution impractical. In France, the ownership of land includes the under-
ground volume extending to the centre of the earth, but, in the public interest, the Government can
– 1 –

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buy the rights to the underground part for a purely nominal fee. In Switzerland, a real estate owner
only owns the land down to a “reasonable” depth. Accordingly, the host states re-acted quickly and
gave CERN the right to bore tunnels under the two countries, effectively opening a quasiin?nite
site that only needed a few “islands” of land ownership for shafts. In 1989, CERN started LEP, the
world’s highest energy electron-positron collider. In 2000, LEP was closed to liberate the tunnel
for the LHC.
The LHC design depends on some basic principles linked with the latest technology. Be-
ing a particle-particle collider, there are two rings with counter-rotating beams, unlike particle-
antiparticle colliders that can have both beams sharing the same phase space in a single ring. The
2008 JINST 3 S08001
tunnel geometry was originally designed for the electron-positron machine LEP, and there were
eight crossing points ?anked by long straight sections for RF cavities that compensated the high
synchrotron radiation losses. A proton machine such as LHC does not have the same synchrotron
radiation problem and would, ideally, have longer arcs and shorter straight sections for the same
circumference, but accepting the tunnel “as built” was the cost-effective solution. However, it was
decided to equip only four of the possible eight interaction regions and to suppress beam crossings
in the other four to prevent unnecessary disruption of the beams. Of the four chosen interaction
points, two were equipped with new underground caverns.
The tunnel in the arcs has a ?nished internal diameter of 3.7 m, which makes it extremely
dif?cult to install two completely separate proton rings. This hard limit on space led to the adoption
of the twin-bore magnet design that was proposed by John Blewett at the Brookhaven laboratory
in 1971. At that time, it was known as the “two-in-one” super-conducting magnet design [1] and
was put forward as a cost saving measure [2, 3], but in the case of the LHC the overriding reason
for adopting this solution is the lack of space in the tunnel. The disadvantage of the twin bore
design is that the rings are magnetically coupled, which adversely affects ?exibility. This is why
the Superconducting Super Collider (SSC) was designed with separate rings [4].
In the second half of the twentieth century, it became clear that higher energies could only
be reached through better technologies, principally through superconductivity. The ?rst use of su-
perconducting magnets in an operational collider was in the ISR, but always at 4 K to 4.5 K [5].
However, research was moving towards operation at 2 K and lower, to take advantage of the in-
creased temperature margins and the enhanced heat transfer at the solid-liquid interface and in the
bulk liquid [6]. The French Tokamak Tore II Supra demonstrated this new technology [7, 8], which
was then proposed for the LHC [9] and brought from the preliminary study to the ?nal concept
design and validation in six years [10].
The different systems in the LHC will be reviewed in more details in the following chapters.
The principal references used for the technical design are the early design studies [11, 12] and the
LHC Design Report [13], which is in three volumes.
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Chapter 2
Main machine layout and performance
2008 JINST 3 S08001
2.1
Performance goals
The aim of the LHC is to reveal the physics beyond the Standard Model with centre of mass
collision energies of up to 14 TeV. The number of events per second generated in the LHC collisions
is given by:
Nevent = L?event
(2.1)
where ?event is the cross section for the event under study and L the machine luminosity. The
machine luminosity depends only on the beam parameters and can be written for a Gaussian beam
distribution as:
N2nb frev?r
L =
b
F
(2.2)
4??n? ?
where Nb is the number of particles per bunch, nb the number of bunches per beam, frev the revo-
lution frequency, ?r the relativistic gamma factor, ?n the normalized transverse beam emittance, ? *
the beta function at the collision point, and F the geometric luminosity reduction factor due to the
crossing angle at the interaction point (IP):
?
2
1/2
?c?z
F =
1 +
(2.3)
2? ?
?c is the full crossing angle at the IP, ?z the RMS bunch length, and ? * the transverse RMS beam
size at the IP. The above expression assumes round beams, with ?z
? , and with equal beam
parameters for both beams. The exploration of rare events in the LHC collisions therefore requires
both high beam energies and high beam intensities.
The LHC has two high luminosity experiments, ATLAS [14] and CMS [15], both aiming at a
peak luminosity of L = 1034cm2s1 for proton operation. There are also two low luminosity experi-
ments: LHCB [16] for B-physics, aiming at a peak luminosity of L = 1032cm2s1, and TOTEM [17]
for the detection of protons from elastic scattering at small angles, aiming at a peak luminosity
of L = 2 × 1029cm2s1 with 156 bunches. In addition to the proton beams, the LHC will also be
operated with ion beams. The LHC has one dedicated ion experiment, ALICE [18], aiming at a
peak luminosity of L = 1027cm2s1 for nominal lead-lead ion operation.
– 3 –

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The high beam intensity required for a luminosity of L = 1034cm2s1 excludes the use of anti-
proton beams, and hence excludes the particle-anti-particle collider con?guration of a common
vacuum and magnet system for both circulating beams, as used for example in the Tevatron. To
collide two counter-rotating proton beams requires opposite magnetic dipole ?elds in both rings.
The LHC is therefore designed as a proton-proton collider with separate magnet ?elds and vac-
uum chambers in the main arcs and with common sections only at the insertion regions where the
experimental detectors are located. The two beams share an approximately 130 m long common
beam pipe along the IRs. The exact length is 126 m in IR2 and IR8, which feature superconducting
separation dipole magnets next to the triplet assemblies, and 140 m in IR1 and IR5, which feature
2008 JINST 3 S08001
normal conducting magnets and therefore longer separation dipole magnets next to the triplet as-
semblies. Together with the large number of bunches (2’808 for each proton beam), and a nominal
bunch spacing of 25 ns, the long common beam pipe implies 34 parasitic collision points at each
experimental insertion region. For four experimental IRs, this implies a total of 136 unwanted
collision points. Dedicated crossing angle orbit bumps separate the two LHC beams left and right
from the IP in order to avoid collisions at these parasitic collision points.
There is not enough room for two separate rings of magnets in the LEP/LHC tunnel and, for
this reason, the LHC uses twin bore magnets that consist of two sets of coils and beam channels
within the same mechanical structure and cryostat. The peak beam energy depends on the inte-
grated dipole ?eld around the storage ring, which implies a peak dipole ?eld of 8.33 T for the
7 TeV in the LHC machine and the use of superconducting magnet technology.
2.2
Performance limitations
2.2.1
Beam-beam limit
The maximum particle density per bunch is limited by the nonlinear beam-beam interaction that
each particle experiences when the bunches of both beams collide with each other. The beam-beam
interaction is measured by the linear tune shift given by:
Nb rp
? =
(2.4)
4??n
in which rp is the classical proton radius rp = e2/(4??0mpc2). Experience with existing hadron
colliders indicates that the total linear tune shift summed over all IPs should not exceed 0.015.
With three proton experiments requiring head-on collisions, this implies that the linear beam-beam
tune shift for each IP should satisfy ? < 0.005.
2.2.2
Mechanical aperture
The geometrical aperture of the LHC arcs is given by the beam screen dimensions. The beam
screen has a height of approximately 2 × 17.3 mm and a total width of 2 × 22 mm. Setting the
minimum aperture of 10 ? in terms of the RMS beam size, and allowing for tolerances for the linear
machine imperfections and the magnet alignment and geometry, implies a peak nominal beam size
of 1.2 mm. The minimum mechanical aperture of 10 ? gs prescribed by the LHC beam cleaning
system. When combined with a peak ? -function of 180 m in the LHC arcs, this implies a maximum
– 4 –

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Document Outline

• Introduction
• Main machine layout and performance
  • Performance goals
  • Performance limitations
    • Beam-beam limit
    • Mechanical aperture
    • Maximum dipole field and magnet quench limits
    • Energy stored in the circulating beams and in the magnetic fields
    • Heat load
    • Field quality and dynamic aperture
    • Collective beam instabilities
    • Luminosity lifetime
    • Average turnaround time
    • Integrated luminosity
  • Lattice layout
  • Corrector circuits
    • Arc orbit corrector magnets MCB
    • Chromaticity or lattice sextupoles, MS
    • Lattice skew sextupoles, MSS
    • Tune-shift or tuning quadrupoles, MQT
    • Arc skew quadrupole corrector magnets, MQS
    • Landau damping or lattice octupoles, MO
    • Spool-piece corrector magnets
  • High luminosity insertions (IR1 and IR5)
  • Medium luminosity insertion in IR2
  • Beam cleaning insertions in IR3 and IR7
  • RF insertion in IR4
  • Beam abort insertion in IR6
  • Medium luminosity insertion in IR8
• Magnets
  • Overview
  • Superconducting cable
  • Main dipole cold mass
  • Dipole cryostat
  • Short straight sections of the arcs
  • Orbit and multipole correctors in the arcs
  • Insertion magnets
  • Dispersion suppressors
  • Matching section quadrupoles
  • Matching section separation dipoles
  • Low-beta triplets
  • Compensator dipoles in ALICE and LHCb experiments
• The RF systems and beam feedback
  • Introduction
  • Main 400 MHz RF Accelerating System (ACS)
  • Staged 200 MHz Capture System (ACN)
  • Transverse damping and feedback system (ADT)
  • Low-level RF
• Vacuum system
  • Overview
  • Beam vacuum requirements
  • Beam vacuum in the arcs and dispersion suppressors
    • Beam screen (figure 5.1)
    • Cold interconnects (figures 5.2 and 5.3)
    • Beam position monitor bodies and supports (figure 5.4)
  • Beam vacuum in the insertions
    • Beam screen
    • Cold interconnections and Cold-Warm Transitions
    • Room temperature beam vacuum in the field free regions
    • Beam vacuum in room temperature magnets
    • Bake-out and NEG activation
  • Insulation vacuum
  • Vacuum controls
• Powering and protection
  • Overview
  • Powering circuits
  • Powering equipment
    • Current leads
    • Electrical feedboxes
    • Superconducting links
    • Bus-bar systems
    • Normal conducting cables
  • Protection equipment
    • Quench heater power supplies
    • Energy extraction systems
    • 13 kA circuits
    • 600 A extraction equipment
    • Cold diodes
    • Controllers
    • Supervision of the Quench Protection System (QPS)
  • Operational aspects and reliability
    • Electrical quality assurance
    • Quench detectors
    • Quench Heater Power Supplies (DQHDS)
    • Energy extraction
• Cryogenic system
  • Overview
  • General architecture
  • Temperature levels
  • Cooling scheme
    • Arc and dispersion suppressor cooling loops
    • Matching section cooling loops
    • Inner triplet cooling loops
  • Cryogenic distribution
  • Refrigeration plants
    • 4.5 k refrigerators
    • 1.8 k refrigerators
  • Cryogen storage and management
• Beam instrumentation
  • Beam position measurement
  • Beam current transformers
  • Beam loss system
  • Transverse profile measurement
  • Longitudinal profile measurement
  • Luminosity monitors
  • Tune, chromaticity, and betatron coupling
    • General tune measurement system
    • AC dipole
    • High sensitivity tune measurement system
    • Chromaticity measurement
    • Betatron coupling measurement
  • Long-range beam-beam compensation
• Control system
  • Introduction
  • Architecture
    • Overall architecture
    • Network
  • Equipment access
    • The VME and PC Front End Computers
    • The PLCs
    • The supported fieldbuses
    • The WorldFIP fieldbus
    • The Profibus fieldbus
  • Servers and operator consoles
  • Machine timing and UTC
    • Central beam and cycle management
    • Timing generation, transmission and reception
    • UTC for LHC time stamping
    • UTC generation, transmission and reception
    • NTP time protocol
  • Data management
    • Offline and online data repositories
    • Electrical circuits
    • Control system configuration
  • Communication and software frameworks
    • FEC software framework
    • Controls Middleware
    • Device access model
    • Messaging model
    • The J2EE framework for machine control
    • The UNICOS framework for industrial controls
    • The UNICOS object model
  • Control room software
    • Software for LHC beam operation
    • Software requirements
    • The software development process
    • Software for LHC Industrial Systems
  • Services for operations
    • Analogue signals transmission
    • Alarms
    • Logging
    • Post mortem
• Beam dumping
  • System and main parameters
  • Reliability
    • MKD
    • MKB
    • MSD
    • Vacuum system and TDE
    • Post-mortem
    • Synchronisation
    • Energy tracking
    • Other protection
  • Main equipment subsystems
    • Fast-pulsed extraction magnets MKD
    • Generator
    • Fast-pulsed dilution magnets MKB
    • Extraction septum magnets MSD
    • Beam dump absorber block TDE
    • Activation
• Beam injection
  • Overview
  • Injection septa
  • Injection kickers
  • Control system
  • Beam instrumentation
• Injection chain
  • Introduction
  • LHC and SPS requirements
  • Scheme to produce the LHC proton beam in the PS complex
    • Space charge issues in PSB and PS
    • LHC bunch train generation in the PS
    • Initial debunching-rebunching scheme
    • Multiple splitting scheme
  • Overview of hardware changes
• LHC as an ion collider
  • LHC parameters for lead ions
    • Nominal ion scheme
    • Early ion scheme
  • Orbits and optical configurations for heavy ions
  • Longitudinal dynamics
  • Effects of nuclear interactions on the LHC and its beams
  • Intra-beam scattering
  • Synchrotron radiation from lead ions
• LHC machine acronyms
• Bibliography

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