Lower atmospheric influences by solar plasma

Mike Voets

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Lower atmospheric influences by solar plasma
Mike Voets
Profielwerkstuk
Maurick College, Vught








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MAURICK COLLEGE VUGHT






Profielwerkstuk


ter verkrijging van deelname
voor het centraal examen in
het voortgezet wetenschappelijk
onderwijs aan het
Maurick College te Vught









door


Mike Voets
geboren op 24 juli 1993
te s-Hertogenbosch

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Begeleiders


:
ing. M. W. B. M. Leensen (M.Ed)





prof. dr. A. Brekke

Beoordeling


:
ing. M. W. B. M. Leensen (M.Ed)






































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Contents


Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................... 6

Foreword ......................................................................................................................................................... 6

1 Research ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Questions and hypothesis .................................................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Implementation ................................................................................................................................................ 9

2 Theory ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Solar plasma .................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.2 Solar flares. ............................................................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.3 Coronal mass ejections. ......................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.4 Solar Proton Events. .............................................................................................................................................. 11
2.1.5 Conclusion. ............................................................................................................................................................ 12
2.2 Atmosphere .................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.1 The different layers and their distinct characteristics. .......................................................................................... 12
2.2.2 The densities of different altitudes........................................................................................................................ 13
2.2.3 Stratospheric effects by solar proton events. ........................................................................................................ 14
2.2.4 Production of nitric oxide by energetic electrons. ................................................................................................. 14
2.3 The geomagnetic field ..................................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.2 The influence on the directions of charged particles. ........................................................................................... 15
2.4 Stopping altitudes ........................................................................................................................................... 15
2.4.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................................................................... 15
2.4.2 Stopping power in relation to the troposphere. .................................................................................................... 15

3 Results ....................................................................................................................................................... 16
3.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 16

Epilogue ........................................................................................................................................................ 16

References ..................................................................................................................................................... 17


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important factor at the questions about the world
Abstract
we are living in.
During the previous age, science has grown

bigger by mainly telecommunication. The statuses
It has already been investigated that protons in the
of holy books have now largely been taken over by
stratosphere collide with other molecules in the
science and it doesn’t look like the growth can be
atmosphere and push off electrons. These
stopped. If people look at streets and cities, almost
electrons ionize nitrogen in the stratosphere,
everything what can be seen is a product of
which results into a significant destruction of
science. The whistling birds; enormous buildings
ozone. In August of 1972, during a solar proton
wherein hundreds of people are working: science
event, a significant loss of ozone in the
is trendy on a large scale in the world and human
stratosphere was measured. The tales and reports
beings are part of it all the time. Nowadays, young
of northerners can be explained with the
children on school learn to answer the main
knowledge about the situation in the stratosphere
questions of science. That the earth is a globe, that
and measuring reports of amounts of energy of
it has an atmosphere and that the Sun is a star. The
solar particles. Due to uncommon events on the
knowledge of children expands and after learning
sun, like solar proton events or ground level
the basics, it is the children’s choice, whether they
events, which accelerate solar particles, highly
want to study on a more advanced level or not. My
energetic protons sometimes lose their last energy
choice was to take the opportunity to study on a
in the troposphere. Protons are also able to knock
more advanced level and to find more answers.
off electrons by colliding with molecules in the
Since a long time, I have a great passion for
troposphere. In November of 1997, a GLE was
processes which occur outside the Earth’s
classified due to amounts of energy that exceeded
atmosphere. Therefore, I bought a telescope on
10 GeV. Then, even the troposphere was reached
my fifteenth anniversary, which I used to watch
by high energetic protons at beginning velocities of
stars and planets on many cold winter nights of the
nearly the speed of light, as a result of the
years 2008 and 2009. The awareness of being very
enormous amount of energy.
tiny gave me much curiosity for the extraordinary.
Thus, it is not strange that I am going to study
Foreword
astronomy at the University of Leiden, after a

break of a year. At the same time I have got an
At the beginning of the Middle Ages, philosophers
enormous fascination for the Scandinavian
started to wonder about the marvels of our world
countries. The languages; the way to the north; the
and our planet. How and when was our planet
bitter cold at the dark winters; the summer nights
created and when will there be an end? At the
where the Sun doesn’t set; the steep mountains;
time the philosophers began to wonder, the
deep fjords; the clean water coming from glaciers
solutions of the mysteries of our planet and the
and of course the impressive northern lights. After
universe were already written down in, for
mentioning all these aspects it should not be
example,
the
holy
book
of
Christianity.
strange that I want to study a year in northern
Nevertheless, the wise men tried to give answers
Norway.
to these fundamental questions without looking in
In order to combine my two interests and
the Bible. Scientists joined the philosophers on the
passions and because it is a great subject, I chose
research and the request at getting clearer
for the northern lights. My teacher in physics
answers grew. Extraordinary inventions, like
agreed with me to do this project, because I have
printing, made the distribution of science much
always been interested in physics. My first
easier. Since then, it was just a matter of a small
intention was to investigate the northern lights,
amount of time, before science was accepted as an

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aurora and the direct influences on the weather.
However, because of the regular aurora which
occurs on a height of eighty kilometers and higher,
it didn’t seem very realistic that there is a
significant direct influence of the aurora on the
weather. That is why I studied the causes of aurora
and whether it could have any influences on the
lower parts of our atmosphere when extreme solar
eruptions occur.
Watching the northern lights is a very
special privilege. During my stay in Tromsø, on an
early night, the northern lights were clearly visible.
Despite the fact that at the beginning of the night

clouds disabled the sight at the northern lights, a

couple of hours later, the clouds were
Figure 1.1-1. In ancient cultures the northern lights are
disappearing. I decided to watch the aurora at a
seen as the realms of dead ancestors and friends
great distance from the city, on a mountain far
away from traffic lights. There, the sky was clearly
1 Research
visible with all its stars and the flickering northern
lights. Seeing it was truly a sensation. The speed
1.1 Introduction
which the aurora seemed to move with, was

unexpectedly high. The colors varied and the
At the northern parts of Earth, the northern lights,
brightness of the lights was unbelievably high as
also known as aurora borealis, influenced ancient
well. It truly is the best thing I have ever seen and I
cultures, their thoughts and minds. Without a
would like to see it more often.
single warning a green strip of light can appear at
In this report, there could be some false
the night sky, followed by others. Northerners are
references and assumptions, which have been
inspired by these phenomena; magical lights
eliminated as good as possible. But unfortunately,
moving near the Milky Way, accompanied by a
there might remain some mistakes unseen. Hereby
crackling sound from dead spirits.
I apologize for the unseen mistakes in this report,

In the Sami culture, situated in the
whatever the type of fault is. A small mistake has
northern parts of Scandinavia and Russia, the
been made quickly, but can be adjusted very
northern lights are called Guovsahas, the audible
quickly as well. Please don’t bother small mistakes
light. Many people like the Sami culture are
and assumptions and report these as soon as
convinced that there is a particular sound
possible.
accompanied when aurora occurs. It may be a
I thank you for reading this report and
misheard thing, because northern lights shine at an
therefore I hope that it will be comfortable to read
altitude of 100 km. At the height of 100 km, the
and a good reference to other research projects.
density is too thin to carry any sound. Sound
Thank you for putting time at reading and facing
cannot travel 100 km through the atmosphere with
the results and the conclusion. I appreciate your
a density that thin.
efforts highly and thus I hope to get a good

There is a myth that tells that one should
response, with a great view on possible mistakes.
wave to the northern lights to let them move.
However, others warned people against waving to
the northern lights, because it would kill people.
An old folklore tradition tells that the aurora was
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associated with the death and dead spirits. If
people would wave to the dead spirits, they would
get in contact with their dead friends and family,
who want the people to come along. The people
who waved would soon die and reunite themselves
with their family at the northern lights. Because of
this myth, some people are still scared of these
lights of the north.

Not only is the thought that the northern
lights are the realms of death a myth. There are
many folklore stories in the Norse mythology and
from former inhabitants of Greenland, which try to
explain the characteristics of the northern lights. In
the Scandinavian countries, even today people are

superstitious. Waving to it is still seen as
Figure 1.1-2. Overview of solar particles being sent
dangerous and children are told that they
from the solar atmosphere to the geomagnetic field
shouldn’t. At nights, when aurora is strongly active,

and can be seen everywhere on the celestial
Notice the activity of aurora, when people
sphere, people reported feeling static air. Air
reported strange phenomena like sounds and the
would smell like it contains ozone, and particular
smell of ozone. Obviously, the charged particles
clothes would stick to people’s bodies.
seem to appear in the lower atmosphere, when

The sounds of aurora, reminiscent of
the auroral activity is very high.
crackling silver paper, might be an illusion. Since

There has been done research on ozone
where aurora occurs, the density of the
affection in the stratosphere. The American
atmosphere is too thin to let sound travel that far
Association for the Advancement of Science found
to the surface. Assuming that somehow there can
in Solar Proton Events: Stratospheric Sources of
be a sound accompanied, there should be another
Nitric Oxide, that the production of nitric oxide in
explanation.
the stratosphere during major solar proton events

At nights, when aurora is very dynamically
have been comparable or larger than the total
visible all over the celestial sphere, people
average annual production of nitric oxide by the
reported to feel air that has an electric charge, and
action of galactic cosmic rays. Besides the
it would smell like ozone. Air itself could not be
production of ozone, the stopping altitude for
electrically charged. Air is a mixture of several
electrons and protons in case of vertical incidence
individual materials, like nitrogen and oxygen.
to the atmosphere has been investigated by
None of these materials are electrically charged.
Luhmann in 1995. A formula from Wisselwerking
However, electrons or protons are electrically
Ioniserende Straling met Materie from the
charged and could cause the static feeling. The
University of Eindhoven, can be used to calculate
appearance of charged particles may also give a
the required energy for an electron that travels
reason for the heard sound and the smelled ozone
down to a certain depth in the atmosphere. With
during auroral events, since the charged particles
this formula, the densities of different parts of the
can lead to electrical discharges on ground or snow
atmosphere
are
needed.
The
MSIS-E-90
crystals. That discharge electrifies air and could
Atmosphere model from Virtual Ionosphere,
increase the amount of loose electrons and ions.
Thermosphere, Mesosphere Observatory (VITMO)
The available oxygen would perhaps split and
offers a solution. The model calculates the
ozone would be created.


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1.3 Implementation

If it seems that protons are more likely to get deep
in the atmosphere, the formula from the University
of Eindhoven (TU/e) must not be used. The
formula only calculates the energy of electrons,
and the investigation of Luhmann should be used.
If the electrons are more frequently sent down to
the lower atmosphere instead, a list of the
different densities is needed. In order to calculate
with the formula from TU/e, the densities are

needed, given and listed by the model from
Figure 1.3-1. The university of Tromsø in Norway
VITMO. The investigation of Luhmann can be used
researches solar events and auroral activities
as a confirmation. With the energy, the velocity of

a particle can be calculated as well. Besides
different amounts of density dependent on the
calculating the needed energy or velocity for a
altitude.
proton or electron, it is good to reflect on what
1.2 Questions and hypothesis
reduces the velocity of a particle. For example, it
would be sensible to research if the velocity of a

charged particle is influenced by the geomagnetic
It is sensible to investigate first, which solar
field.
particles are more likely to travel very down to the

After finding the energy of a proton or
atmosphere. Protons seem to be more likely to
electron that they require, it is important to inform
travel deeper in the atmosphere more often, due
whether the found energy truly occurs or not. In
to the fact that solar events that are more intense,
order to get access to important international
mostly accelerate protons. There could be
documents that provide information about the
extremely rare events on the Sun, like solar proton
amounts of energy of solar particles, during an
events affecting ozone distribution, where particles
auroral event, it is very sensible and recommended
contain unusually high amounts of energies. The
to visit the center of auroral and solar research.
particles of these major events may travel even
This center is located in the upper north of
farther down than the stratosphere. What is the
Norway, at the University of Tromsø (UiT).
amount of energy which is needed in order to get

During the stay at the UiT, much
near the surface of Earth, where human beings are
information has been transmitted under the
able to notice the events mentioned before? Due
leadership of prof. dr. A. Brekke. Pieces of
to the fact that the energy of particles that travel
investigations on solar proton events, ozone
down to the stratosphere is enormous, the energy
distribution and production, and stopping altitudes
of particles that travel down even deeper must
of solar particles have been received. Besides the
also be higher. Probably, the energy of a proton
obtaining of important documents, articles,
must be over 1 GeV. Do these amounts of energies
measuring
reports,
personal
lections
and
really occur in our solar system? So, are particles
assistance were also given by professor A. Brekke,
able to travel that deep in the atmosphere? Due to
who is specialized on auroral research. At last,
the extreme events that occurred earlier, there is a
seeing aurora itself gives a good comprehension of
significant chance on the presence of loose
the situation. This phenomena can be seen
charged particles in the very lower regions of the
nowhere except at northern or very southern
atmosphere.
latitudes.
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These long during events might be accompanied by
coronal mass ejections (see 1.3.3).

The solar flares are classified and thus
identified by their x-rays intensity. The scale of
intensities is divided in five letters (A, B, C, M and
X) where A is the weakest and X the strongest
intensity. To be more precise, the letter is always
accompanied by a particular number. B4.5 for
example, means that the X-ray intensity equals
4.5·10-7 W·m-2. Thus, the x-ray flare intensity is
measured in units power per square meters. The
list of the scale with the classes is shown in figure


2.1-2.
Figure 2.1-1. An enormous loop of solar plasma can be

created when there is an eruption on the sun
A = 1.0·10-8 W·m-2
B = 1.0·10-7 W·m-2
2 Theory
C = 1.0·10-6 W·m-2
M = 1.0·10-5 W·m-2
2.1 Solar plasma
X = 1.0·10-4 W·m-2



2.1.1 Introduction.
Solar plasma is an ionized
Figure 2.1-2. An overview on scales of solar flares
gas, which contains both negatively and positively


charged particles. Plasma is generally produced by
Large solar flares can have an intensity of ten
heating a gas or liquid to a several thousand
million times greater than a volcanic eruption on
degrees Kelvin, forcing the molecules and atoms to
Earth. Fortunately, the Earth’s atmosphere has the
split up into electrons and ions. Most matter in the
power to defend life on Earth from these large
universe is in the form of plasma. For example,
explosions in the Sun’s atmosphere.
stars have plasma in their atmosphere because of

the heat.
2.1.3 Coronal mass ejections. Coronal
mass

ejections (CME’s) are large explosions in the solar
2.1.2 Solar flares.
Solar flares are explosions
corona. They expand while rising above the solar
in the Sun’s lower atmosphere, during when a
corona. The heat that is associated with the
great amount of energy is discharged. The
massive bursts are sometimes equal to millions of
produced energy of a solar flare can heat material
degrees Celsius, which enables electrons, protons
to thousands and even millions degrees Celsius in a
and other nuclei to get a velocity of near the speed
short amount of time. Solar flares emit radiation of
of light. The electrons from these heavy bursts
the electromagnetic spectrum, from white light to
have a velocity higher than solar winds ever could
x-rays and gamma rays. Next to the radiation, the
have. The sun is able to supply many and fast
solar flares transfer lots of energy to nearby
CME’s for hours, especially during the solar
matter, which is accelerated to high velocities. This
maximum, which gets its maximum every eleven
matter, mostly plasma, is ejected by acceleration in
years.
a particular direction. A solar flare could occur as

short, but strong explosions, but also as a long

lasting brightening, which takes hours to days.


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