On the Naturalistic Fallacy : A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics

Evolutionary Psychology
human-nature.com/ep – 2004. 2: 32-46
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Original Article


On the Naturalistic Fallacy: A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics

John Teehan, Hofstra University, 104A Roosevelt Hall, Hempstead, NY, 11549, USA. Email:
susjpt@hofstra.edu.

Christopher diCarlo, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Faculty of Social Sciences,
Oshawa, Ontario, Canada. Email: cwdicarlo@yahoo.com.

Abstract: In debates concerning evolutionary approaches to ethics the Naturalistic
Fallacy (i.e., deriving values from facts or “ought” from “is”) is often invoked as a
constraining principle. For example, Stephen Jay Gould asserts the most that
evolutionary studies can hope to do is set out the conditions under which certain
morals or values might have arisen, but it can say nothing about the validity of such
values, on pain of committing the Naturalistic Fallacy. Such questions of moral
validity, he continues, are best left in the domain of religion. This is a common
critique of evolutionary ethics but it is based on an insufficient appreciation of the full
implications of the Naturalistic Fallacy. Broadly conceived, the Naturalistic Fallacy
rules out any attempt to treat morality as defined according to some pre-existent
reality, whether that reality is expressed in natural or non-natural terms. Consequent
to this is that morality must be treated as a product of natural human interactions. As
such, any discipline which sheds light on the conditions under which values originate,
and on the workings of moral psychology, may play a crucial role in questions of
moral validity. The authors contend that rather than being a constraint on
evolutionary approaches to ethics, the Naturalistic Fallacy, so understood, clears the
way, conceptually, for just such an approach.

Keywords: evolutionary ethics, Stephen Jay Gould, moral philosophy, naturalistic
fallacy.

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Introduction


The title of this paper is intended to be a bit provocative in so far as The
Naturalistic Fallacy (NF) is most often seen as an obstacle to evolutionary ethics
rather than a basis for it. The NF prohibits deriving value statements from purely

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On the Naturalistic Fallacy: A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics
factual statements about the way the world is. Since evolutionary studies seek to
provide strictly factual statements about the world it seems, to many, to follow that
such studies cannot provide the basis for an ethical system. There are many variations
of this claim and a great debate on the topic. In order to focus on the salient aspects of
this issue we will focus on one particular version of this objection, that presented by
noted evolutionary thinker, the late Stephen Jay Gould.
Gould addresses the issue of evolution and ethics in his work entitled Rocks of
Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life (1999). In that work he sets out a
principle that sets the boundaries between science and religion, which he terms
NOMA, i.e. Non-Overlapping Magisteria. A magisterium, Gould tells us, ‘is a
domain where one form of teaching holds the appropriate tools for meaningful
discourse and resolution.’ (5) Science and religion, according to Gould, each have
their respective magisterium where their teaching is authoritative, and it follows,
given the logic of magisteria, that neither has any authority to teach in the other’s
domain. The domain of science is the empirical world. As Gould says ‘Science tries
to document the factual character of the natural world, and to develop theories that
coordinate and explain these facts.’ (4) The domain of religion is ‘the realm of human
purposes, meanings, and values—subjects’ he continues ‘that the factual domain of
science might illuminate, but can never resolve.’(4) The consequences of this setting
of boundaries is that ‘religion can no longer dictate the nature of factual conclusions
residing properly within the magisterium of science’ and that ‘scientists cannot claim
higher insight into moral truth from any superior knowledge of the world’s empirical
constitution.’ (9-10)
It is this latter claim that directly concerns us here: that the superior knowledge of
the empirical nature of the world does not provide a higher insight into ethics than
that provided by non-empirical methods, such as religion. It is clear that the
Naturalistic Fallacy lurks beneath this claim. Gould writes of ethics, that ‘fruitful
discussion must proceed under a different magisterium, far older than science,’ a
discussion ‘about ethical “ought,” rather than a search for any factual “is” about the
material construction of the factual world.’ (55)
Gould is really not adding anything new to this debate. (Nor, in all fairness, does
he claim to be. In fact Gould includes a lengthy footnote admitting that he
oversimplifies the topic, but justifies his use of the is/ought distinction as ‘broad-
scale treatment’ of a ‘central principle.’ n55-57) Still, he does set out a useful schema
for understanding the issue. There are empirical facts about the world and there are
value judgments about those facts. Facts are ascertained via the scientific method;
religion is barred from speaking about the empirical constitution of the world because
it does not employ the scientific method. So far, so good. Then we see that science is
barred from speaking about values; but religion is not similarly barred—and why?
Because the line between facts and values is guarded by the NF and it is presumed
that the NF prohibits any scientific approach to ethics but passes through any
religious or philosophical approach (at least, any non-empirical philosophical
approach. 59-60)
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On the Naturalistic Fallacy: A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics
It is here that we see a confusion which needs to be addressed to fully appreciate
the role of the NF in ethical theory. While it is true that the NF does prohibit a certain
scientific approach to ethics, it does not follow that it prohibits any scientific
approach. Furthermore, a deeper reading of the NF shows that it does not allow all
religious or philosophical approaches to ethics, but places a constraint on this
magisterium, as well. The thesis here is that once this confusion is cleared away we
will see that not only is an evolutionary approach to ethics permissible, but it may in
fact be indispensable. In order to justify this final claim we must first delve into the
NF.

II) Understanding the Naturalistic Fallacy

We find the first historical reference to the Naturalistic Fallacy in David Hume’s
Treatise of Human Nature in which he states:

In every system of morality, which I have hitherto met with, I have always
remark’d, that the author proceeds for some time in the ordinary way of
reasoning, and establishes the being of a God, or makes observations
concerning human affairs: when of a sudden I am supriz’d to find, that instead
of the usual copulations of propositions, is, and is not, I meet with no
propositions that is not connected with an ought, or an ought not. This change is
imperceptible; but is, however, of the last consequence. For as this ought, or
ought not, expresses some new relation or affirmation, ‘tis necessary that it
shou’d be observ’d and explain’d; and at the same time that a reason should be
given, for what seems altogether inconceivable, how this new relation can be a
deduction from others, which are entirely different from it. (469)

Scholars have generally taken this to mean that one cannot make logical inferences of
value from observations of natural facts—at least, not without the inclusion of an
additional (suppressed or hidden) premise. “Is” does not imply “ought”, as they say.
It has also been referred to as the Fact/Value Gap, but it reached its greatest
popularity as the Naturalistic Fallacy in the Principia Ethica of G. E. Moore. Moore
maintained that any attempt to define “good” in naturalistic terms was fallacious. But
as with many scholars, the intended meaning of an idea can become lost,
misrepresented, caricatured, etc., if we ignore the primary sources.
Few realize that there is a feature in Moore's ethical system which is often
overlooked and that is his claim that metaphysicians also commit the naturalistic
fallacy. Understandably so, Moore dubbed his famous fallacy in order to reveal the
problems associated with defining Good in naturalistic terms. However, Moore
stretches the boundaries of this fallacy by claiming that it applies to those who define
Good in metaphysical terms, as well.
In the first chapter of his Principia, Moore states that any attempt to define Good
in terms of natural properties commits the naturalistic fallacy. This, he believed, was
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On the Naturalistic Fallacy: A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics
due to the unique nature of Good, which is, he claimed, indefinable. ‘“Good”...is
incapable of any definition...“good” has no definition because it is simple and has no
parts. It is one of those innumerable objects of thought which are themselves
incapable of definition, because they are the ultimate terms by reference to which
whatever is capable of definition must be defined.’ (9-10)
Now, although Moore realizes that Good is not actually indefinable i.e. that no
definition of it is possible, he is trying to point out that its elusive nature is the
substantive to which any adjective of “good” must apply. In other words, although we
may experience many good things, that which is Good about these things is not found
in their properties. To offer any definition of Good we may ask, says Moore, whether
that definition is good. This, of course, is Moore's open question argument. ‘If “good”
was definable it was a complex, and so it could be asked of any definiens if it was
good. After all, a definition should not be merely "analytic," it should give
information about the definiendum; therefore whatever definition is offered, it may
always be asked, with significance, of the complex so defined, whether it is itself
good.’ (Hill, 99) Good is what it is and not another thing; anyone attempting to define
it through the use of any natural properties commits the naturalistic fallacy.
In the fourth chapter of the Principia, Moore goes on to state that any
metaphysical definition of Good commits the naturalistic fallacy as well. Unlike
naturalists, metaphysicians did not believe that ethics could be explained in terms of
natural properties but instead believed, like Moore, that Good was a super-sensible
property. Unlike Moore, however, the metaphysicians came under attack because
they tried to define Good as actually existing super-sensible objects. (Warnock, 28)
This is somewhat confusing due to the fact that Moore earlier defined Good as super-
sensible and known only through intuition yet he also maintains that goodness does
not exist. The main difficulty with Moore's definition of Good seems to lie in its
precarious mode of existence. There is a similarity here between Moore's theory of
Good and Plato's theory of Forms.
Moore believed the central problem with the metaphysicians involved their
attempt to equate Good with some super-sensible property such as the true self or the
real will.(Warnock, 32) In this respect they seem, prima facie, to have committed the
naturalistic fallacy (though not because they have equated Good with a natural
property). As Frankena points out, Moore tends to confuse matters by lumping
natural and metaphysical properties into one class. Perhaps Frankena is correct in
claiming that Moore should have called it the ‘definist fallacy’ i.e. the fallacy is
committed when the attempt is made to define Good as a natural or a metaphysical
property. (Cited in Warnock, 13) Mary Warnock points out that Moore didn't care
much for the name: ‘It does not matter what we call it provided we recognize it when
we meet it; the true fallacy is the attempt to define the indefinable.’ (Warnock, 13)
Nevertheless, an important distinction can be made between committing the
naturalistic fallacy by equating Good with a natural property and committing the
naturalistic fallacy by equating Good with a metaphysical property. What Moore is
asserting is that any argument of the form:
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On the Naturalistic Fallacy: A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics

(1) “Reality is of this nature” “This is good in itself”
(where
designates “implies”)

commits the naturalistic fallacy (NF). Since this differs in type from the attempt to
define Good in terms of natural properties, we shall distinguish it by calling it the
metaphysical fallacy (MF). Though it differs in type (or species) from that of defining
Good in terms of natural properties, we may consider it, as does Moore, to belong to
the overall genus of the naturalistic fallacy.
It has been suggested that Moore treats Good and the naturalistic fallacy in this
manner because if naturalistic or metaphysical definitions were synonymously
identified with Good, the autonomy of ethics would be destroyed: ‘If Good is
identified with some empirically verifiable biological tendency (say, what is more
evolved) Ethics becomes a branch of biology. If Good is defined in psychological
terms (say, whatever anyone prefers) Ethics becomes a branch of psychology. And
so on.’ (Regan, 201-202) If naturalistic or metaphysical definitions were synonymous
with Good, Regan states, Moore believed our freedom to judge intrinsic value would
be lost. For example, if Good means “more evolved” then there could be no room for
individual judgment about what sort of things ought to exist for their own sakes. In
this way, those that are most knowledgeable about what things are more evolved (i.e.
biologists), would become our authorities. The same holds true if Good is defined in
psychological or metaphysical terms. If Good is not defined in either naturalistic or
metaphysical terms, the autonomy of the individual is assured:

At the deepest level it is the autonomy of the individual judgment about what
has intrinsic value, not the autonomy of the Science of Morals...Individuals
must judge for themselves what things ought to exist, what things are worth
having for their own sakes. No natural science can do this. No metaphysical
system can do this. (Regan, 204)

Moore here articulates a more general concern over evolutionary ethics—that such an
ethics will somehow dictate to the individual what and how he or she ought to value.
However, we will later argue that an evolutionary ethics based on a deeper
understanding of the NF rules out any such concern. For now we can see that
extending the NF to metaphysical definitions of the good poses a problem for
Gould’s insistence on the exclusivity of the Religious Magisteria concerning ethics,
and, we believe, creates an opening for evolutionary ethics.

III) Implications of the Naturalistic/Metaphysical Fallacy

Given this understanding of the Naturalistic Fallacy we can see that certain moves
from facts to values are ruled out. For example, any attempt to read a value statement
directly from a simple statement of fact would be to commit the NF. An instance of
such a fallacious move can be found in a 1984 article by philosopher Michael Levin
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On the Naturalistic Fallacy: A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics
entitled “Why Homosexuality is Abnormal.” In support of the notion that there is
something “unnatural” about homosexuality Levin writes,

The erect penis fits the vagina, and fits it better than any other natural orifice;
penis and vagina seem made for each other. This intuition ultimately derives
from, or is another way of capturing, the idea that the penis is not for inserting
into the anus of another man–that so using the penis is not the way it is
supposed, even intended, to be used. [italics in the original] (251)

Here the NF comes into play and asks the key question: Even though x (the penis)
evolved to do y (be inserted into the vagina) why ought we to do y, instead of z? To
reply that y is the evolved function of x, and z is not, is merely to restate the original
premise. It is a circular argument, and is without merit.
Now Levin, being a professional philosopher, does not present such a simplistic
argument as this, but it is not merely professional philosophers who moralize and the
NF can be a useful tool in assessing popular moral arguments, which are often more
socially influential than philosophical arguments. Of course, we are here most
interested in the role of the NF in moral philosophy and it does play a role in
assessing Levin’s larger position.
While he does not mention the NF, Levin goes to great lengths throughout the
article to avoid suspicion of this charge. He begins by stating that homosexuality is
abnormal ‘not because it is immoral or sinful...but for a purely mechanical reason. It
is a misuse of bodily parts.’ (251) Still, for Levin, the evolution-determined function
of the penis clearly sets the boundaries for the normative use of the penis. (256-258)
Levin does not argue, overtly at least, that since evolution shaped the penis to do x
that to do ~x is immoral. His argument is that the use of the penis in accord with its
evolutionary purpose is conducive to happiness, and to act counter to what is
conducive to our happiness is abnormal. He attempts to presents this conclusion as a
prudential assessment, rather than a moral one but he undermines such an
interpretation. He writes.

Homosexual acts involve the use of the genitals for what they aren’t for, and it
is a bad or at least unwise thing to use a part of the body for what it isn’t for.
Calling homosexual acts “unnatural” is indeed to sum up this entire line of
reasoning. “Unnatural” carries disapprobative connotations, and any explication
of it should capture this. [italics in the original] (253)

His argument comes down to: homosexuality is bad because it makes us unhappy,
and it makes us unhappy because it is unnatural–i.e. contrary to the design of nature.
With this formulation Levin may be able to avoid the more egregious violation of the
NF previously discussed, but he falls into a variation of the fallacy, nonetheless, i.e.
he uses a natural description to make a moral prescription.
It may be legitimate to argue that one ought not to act in a way incompatible with
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On the Naturalistic Fallacy: A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics
one’s happiness and so one ought not to do x because x is incompatible with
happiness. But then one must support the premise that “x is incompatible with
happiness.” Levin’s primary support for this premise is that ‘Nature is interested in
making its creatures like what is (inclusively) good for them.’ (259) Therefore using
our bodily parts (not merely the penis) for the purpose for which they were
intended/evolved will lead to a life that is, on whole, more enjoyable, and a life so
lived will be a happier life. (260) Levin’s explication of this position is marred by an
equivocation between “enjoyment” and “happiness” but more importantly he seems
to rule out, by definition, any sense of happiness generated by using body parts in an
“unnatural” manner. ‘Homosexuality’ he asserts ‘is likely to cause unhappiness
because it leaves unfulfilled an innate and innately rewarding desire.’ (261) This
“innate desire” is not simply to experience sexual release, or to ejaculate, but to
‘introduce semen into the vagina.’ (261) Any other means of release will fail to truly
satisfy this desire.
Levin is here treading on treacherous grounds, not only logically, but empirically.
There are more serious problems with this line of reasoning than violating the NF, but
that this is an example of the NF we can see by posing the question: What if an
individual does not find vaginal sex innately rewarding, but instead finds anal sex or
even no sex more rewarding? In such instances it follows that fulfilling the natural
function of the penis will not be enjoyable, and will not conduce to happiness.
Therefore, one ought not to act in the way nature intended for to do so would violate
the principle that one ought not to do what is incompatible with happiness. (It is,
perhaps, telling that Levin allows that volitionally celibate individuals, such as
Catholic priests, do not face the same problem in being happy as homosexuals do—
despite their similar violation of the natural impulse. 271)
It is, we believe, arguments like Levin’s which cause the most anxiety over
evolutionary ethics. The concern seems to be that if we allow evolutionary thinking
into our ethics we are going to end up with a reactionary moral system which
supports an oppressive patriarchal value system in which woman are consigned to the
kitchen, homosexuals to the closets, the poor and disadvantaged to the fringes of
society, all in the name of the natural moral order. The Naturalistic Fallacy cuts off
any such strategy by pointing out that simply because something has played a certain
role in the evolution of the species it does not follow that it ought to continue to play
that role, or that it can play no other role. How we ought to behave is a moral
question which cannot simply be read out of the world of facts.
Curiously, this is just the point that opponents of evolutionary ethics, such as
Gould, want to make, and it is a valid point. However, it does not do all the work
Gould and others attribute to it. For one, it does not hand ethics over to religion and
metaphysics —as we can see from an examination of the MF.
The Metaphysical Fallacy holds that value statements cannot be derived from a
simple statement of religious or metaphysical “fact.” As an example let’s explore an
aspect of Immanuel Kant’s ethics. Kant developed a dualistic view of humans as
phenomenal beings, with passions, needs and desires, and noumenal beings, capable
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of grasping the laws of pure reason. (1788) Morality, for Kant, is derived from these
intellectually grasped laws of pure reason. This is, of course, the Categorical
Imperative (in its various manifestations).
The question to consider here is, what grounds the Categorical Imperative, not as a
rule of reason (we can grant Kant that) but as a moral law? Why ought one to follow
the Categorical Imperative? Or in Moore’s terms, why is it good to follow the
Categorical Imperative? Kant addressed this question and deemed it unanswerable: ‘it
is wholly impossible to explain how and why the universality of a maxim as a law
[italics in original]–and therefore morality –should interest us.” However he then
asserts that this interest is connected to the fact that the law has ‘sprung from our will
as intelligence and so from our proper self.’ [emphasis added] (1785,128-129) Our
essential nature as rational beings is the foundation for the moral force of the rule of
reason. In effect, Kant is arguing:


p1 Humans are Essentially Rational Beings,

p2 Pure Practical Reason dictates certain rules for behavior

C—We ought to follow these rules.

The argument is, of course, much more complicated but this will serve, I believe,
without too much harm being done to Kant.
Now we ask the Open Question. When we ask Kant why we ought to follow the
dictates of rationality, his answer, ultimately, is because it is an expression of our
rational nature. Even if we were to grant the notion of an essential nature, it seems we
can still ask why we ought to fulfill that nature? If it is supposedly good to do so, a
justification seems called for. Kant, however, absolutely rejects any consequential
justification of ethics. We cannot claim, for example, that we will be happier if we
follow the dictates of reason. We are simply obliged by virtue of our rational natures
to act rationally.
We can now notice a circularity lurking in the argument: We ought to do x
because it is rational, and we ought to be rational because we are, essentially, rational
beings—in effect this is to derive an “ought” (act according to rationality) from an
“is” (we are rational). Whether the “is” is an empirical statement or a metaphysical
statement, it is an invalid move. This is not to deny that we must be rational in order
to engage in moral discourse. Kant is correct in emphasizing the necessity of
rationality as a pre-condition of any moral deliberation. He goes astray, however, in
deriving the principles of morality strictly from the notion of rationality, per se. 1 He
in effect identifies the “good” with the “rational,” which not only begs the question of
reason’s moral authority, but rules out of consideration, a priori, emotional and
consequential concerns.
The Metaphysical Fallacy prohibits certain religious/philosophical attempts at
developing an ethics, just as the Naturalistic Fallacy prohibits certain scientific
attempts at developing an ethics. This is, in fact, what we believe the Naturalistic
fallacy does: it does not demarcate the boundaries between science and ethics, or
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On the Naturalistic Fallacy: A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics
between science and religion—it invalidates certain attempts at developing an ethics.
Specifically, it invalidates ethical arguments of the form

X is the natural function of Y; therefore one ought to do X

It also rules out:

X is an expression of Ultimate Reality: therefore X is morally correct

We can see, then, that Gould’s NOMA is mistaken in placing ethics under the
magisterium of religion. Religious and metaphysical systems can be just as misguided
in their approach to ethics as scientific approaches can be. However, our goal was not
to critique religion, but to argue for a positive role for evolution in ethical theorizing,
and to that we must now turn.

IV) The Naturalistic Fallacy and Evolutionary Ethics

The message to be taken from this understanding of the NF is that no factual
statement about the world—be it empirical or metaphysical—entails a value
statement. The deeper message is that values are not to be found, at all, whether in the
natural universe, or in some transcendent realm. Now, this may seem an unpalatable
conclusion that does not bode well for any ethical system, much less an evolutionary
one, but we do not believe this is to be the case. Moral dilemmas exist; values
conflict; “what ought we to do?” is still a meaningful question. There needs to be
some way of dealing with these ethical concerns, even after the NF/MF has done its
work.
To see how to proceed we need to adjust our traditional notions of the subject of
moral philosophy. The notion that ethical truths are “out there” waiting to be
discovered is itself the remnant of a pre-scientific mode of thought. It stems back to a
time when not only ethics, but science itself was under the magisterium of religion.
The progress of modern science can be viewed as a process of freeing the study of
nature from religious/ metaphysical constraints and establishing its own magisterium.
For example, our understanding of species increased dramatically once we
surrendered the notion that there are fixed essences embodied by species, and saw
instead that species are what they are because of a complex, dynamic process of
interaction between individuals and their environments.
This provides an important lesson for understanding ethics. While the universe is
value-neutral in the sense of not entailing any moral imperatives, it does contain the
conditions that give rise to valuing and to creatures who make value judgments.
These value judgments are not the expression of some pre-existing moral essence but
rather arise from the complex interactions between individuals and the environment.
In effect, morality is not “out there” waiting to be found, it is constructed by
individuals-who-value, who live in an environment which provides the conditions for
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both satisfying and frustrating our desires, and who must live with others who may or
may not value the same things, in the same way. Morality is both the result of and a
contributor to complex social interactions.
This approach should not be construed as an endorsement of a non-cognitivist or
anti-realist approach to ethics. In one sense this critique of the NF/MF is neutral on
these meta-ethical issues. However, the goal of this critique is to clear the conceptual
ground for an evolutionary ethics and such an ethics is aligned more consistently with
cognitivist /realist approaches. Although in making this claim we would do well to
keep in mind Simon Blackburn’s warning that “realism” and “cognitivism” are ‘terms
of art that philosophers can define pretty much at will.’ (120) In saying that values are
not “out there” we do not mean to imply that values are therefore simply expressions
of subjective attitudes or emotions.2 What is being denied is any strict identification
of a factual description of some property of the world with a normative evaluation of
that property.
A complete inventory of the universe would not yield any property which in and of
itself could be labeled “good” or “bad.” But that inventory would contain creatures
(e.g. humans) that have needs, desires, interests, etc., which in relationship to other
things on the list yield satisfactions/dissatisfactions, which constitute “values.” A
“value” is not an object in the world, but is shorthand for an objective relationship
between creatures with interests and other components of the universe. 3
To view ethics in this way is to see it as an attempt to evaluate and critique certain
responses to complex social situations, not as an attempt to divine some pre-existing
moral order. It is to view ethics as a practical discipline. This is not a radically new
view of ethics. It was first suggested by Aristotle, and it has been more recently
advocated by Michael Ruse and E. O. Wilson, who have urged us to see morality as
an “applied science.” (1986) It is also the approach to ethics developed by John
Dewey (1898, 1902, 1925, 1929)—who, though woefully under-appreciated, has
much to offer evolutionary ethics and who is, in fact, the guiding light behind much
of this article. 4
Given this view of ethics, it becomes essential to gain greater insight into the
conditions that underlie value judgment, their development and their consequences.
These are empirical questions and so fall under the magisterium of science. Any
science which helps us to understand and assess morally problematic situations has
something to contribute to moral philosophy. Evolution, as a scientific study of
human cognition, emotions and predispositions—core elements of moral situations—
rather than being barred becomes a most valuable tool in the study of ethics. 5

V) Conclusion

Before concluding, we need to deal with the most common objection to this
position, and again we can allow Gould to speak for the opposition. It is quite
reasonable, Gould says, to accept that science can highlight the conditions of moral
experience or the history of moral systems, what he calls the ‘anthropology of
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Document Outline

• Evolutionary Psychology
  • On the Naturalistic Fallacy: A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics

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