Most of us have genes that make us as hardy as dandelions: able to take root and survive almost
anywhere. A few of us, however, are more like the orchid: fragile and fickle, but capable of
blooming spectacularly if given greenhouse care. So holds a provocative new theory of genetics,
which asserts that the very genes that give us the most trouble as a species, causing behaviors
that are self?destructive and antisocial, also underlie humankind’s phenomenal adaptability and
evolutionary success. With a bad environment and poor parenting, orchid children can end up
depressed, drug?addicted, or in jail—but with the right environment and good parenting, they
can grow up to be society’s most creative, successful, and happy people. THE SCIENCE OF SUCCESS
by David Dobbs | The Atlantic | December 2009
In 2004, Marian Bakermans?Kranenburg, a professor of child and family studies at Leiden University,
started carrying a video camera into homes of families whose 1?to?3?year?olds indulged heavily in the
oppositional, aggressive, uncooperative, and aggravating behaviour that psychologists call
“externalizing”: whining, screaming, whacking, throwing tantrums and objects, and wilfully refusing
reasonable requests. Staple behaviours in toddlers, perhaps. But research has shown that toddlers with
especially high rates of these behaviours are likely to become stressed, confused children who fail
academically and socially in school, and become antisocial and unusually aggressive adults.
At the outset of their study, Bakermans?Kranenburg and her colleagues had screened 2,408 children via
parental questionnaire, and they were now focusing on the 25 percent rated highest by their parents in
externalizing behaviours. Lab observations had confirmed these parental ratings.
Bakermans?Kranenburg meant to change the kids’ behaviour. In an intervention her lab had developed,
she or another researcher visited each of 120 families six times over eight months; filmed the mother
and child in everyday activities, including some requiring obedience or cooperation; and then edited the
film into teachable moments to show to the mothers. A similar group of high?externalizing children
received no intervention.
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To the researchers’ delight, the intervention worked. The moms, watching the videos, learned to spot
cues they’d missed before, or to respond differently to cues they’d seen but had reacted to poorly.
Quite a few mothers, for instance, had agreed only reluctantly to read picture books to their fidgety,
difficult kids, saying they wouldn’t sit still for it. But according to Bakermans?Kranenburg, when these
mothers viewed the playback they were “surprised to see how much pleasure it was for the child—and
for them.” Most mothers began reading to their children regularly, producing what Bakermans?
Kranenburg describes as “a peaceful time that they had dismissed as impossible.”
And the bad behaviours dropped. A year after the intervention ended, the toddlers who’d received it
had reduced their externalizing scores by more than 16 percent, while a non?intervention control group
improved only about 10 percent (as expected, due to modest gains in self?control with age). And the
mothers’ responses to their children became more positive and constructive.
Few programs change parent?child dynamics so successfully. But gauging the efficacy of the intervention
wasn’t the Leiden team’s only goal, or even its main one. The team was also testing a radical new
hypothesis about how genes shape behaviour—a hypothesis that stands to revise our view of not only
mental illness and behavioural dysfunction but also human evolution.
Of special interest to the team was a new interpretation of one of the most important and influential
ideas in recent psychiatric and personality research: that certain variants of key behavioural genes (most
of which affect either brain development or the processing of the brain’s chemical messengers) make
people more vulnerable to certain mood, psychiatric, or personality disorders. Bolstered over the past
15 years by numerous studies, this hypothesis, often called the “stress diathesis” or “genetic
vulnerability” model, has come to saturate psychiatry and behavioural science. During that time,
researchers have identified a dozen?odd gene variants that can increase a person’s susceptibility to
depression, anxiety, attention?deficit hyperactivity disorder, heightened risk?taking, and antisocial,
sociopathic, or violent behaviours, and other problems—if, and only if, the person carrying the variant
suffers a traumatic or stressful childhood or faces particularly trying experiences later in life.
This vulnerability hypothesis, as we can call it, has already changed our conception of many psychic and
behavioural problems. It casts them as products not of nature or nurture but of complex “gene?
environment interactions.” Your genes don’t doom you to these disorders. But if you have “bad”
versions of certain genes and life treats you ill, you’re more prone to them.
Recently, however, an alternate hypothesis has emerged from this one and is turning it inside out. This
new model suggests that it’s a mistake to understand these “risk” genes only as liabilities. Yes, this new
thinking goes, these bad genes can create dysfunction in unfavourable contexts—but they can also
enhance function in favourable contexts. The genetic sensitivities to negative experience that the
vulnerability hypothesis has identified, it follows, are just the downside of a bigger phenomenon: a
heightened genetic sensitivity to all experience.
The evidence for this view is mounting. Much of it has existed for years, in fact, but the focus on
dysfunction in behavioural genetics has led most researchers to overlook it. This tunnel vision is easy to
explain, according to Jay Belsky, a child?development psychologist at Birkbeck, University of London.
“Most work in behavioural genetics has been done by mental?illness researchers who focus on
vulnerability,” he told me recently. “They don’t see the upside, because they don’t look for it. It’s like
dropping a dollar bill beneath a table. You look under the table, you see the dollar bill, and you grab it.
But you completely miss the five that’s just beyond your feet.”
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Though this hypothesis is new to modern biological psychiatry, it can be found in folk wisdom, as the
University of Arizona developmental psychologist Bruce Ellis and the University of British Columbia
developmental paediatrician W. Thomas Boyce pointed out last year in the journal Current Directions in
Psychological Science. The Swedes, Ellis and Boyce noted in an essay titled “Biological Sensitivity to
Context,” have long spoken of “dandelion” children. These dandelion children—equivalent to our
“normal” or “healthy” children, with “resilient” genes—do pretty well almost anywhere, whether raised
in the equivalent of a sidewalk crack or a well?tended garden. Ellis and Boyce offer that there are also
“orchid” children, who will wilt if ignored or maltreated but bloom spectacularly with greenhouse care.
At first glance, this idea, which I’ll call the orchid hypothesis, may seem a simple amendment to the
vulnerability hypothesis. It merely adds that environment and experience can steer a person up instead
of down. Yet it’s actually a completely new way to think about genetics and human behaviour. Risk
becomes possibility; vulnerability becomes plasticity and responsiveness. It’s one of those simple ideas
with big, spreading implications. Gene variants generally considered misfortunes (poor Jim, he got the
“bad” gene) can instead now be understood as highly leveraged evolutionary bets, with both high risks
and high potential rewards: gambles that help create a diversified?portfolio approach to survival, with
selection favouring parents who happen to invest in both dandelions and orchids.
In this view, having both dandelion and orchid kids greatly raises a family’s (and a species’) chance of
succeeding, over time and in any given environment. The behavioural diversity provided by these two
different types of temperament also supplies precisely what a smart, strong species needs if it is to
spread across and dominate a changing world. The many dandelions in a population provide an
underlying stability. The less?numerous orchids, meanwhile, may falter in some environments but can
excel in those that suit them. And even when they lead troubled early lives, some of the resulting
heightened responses to adversity that can be problematic in everyday life—increased novelty?seeking,
restlessness of attention, elevated risk?taking, or aggression—can prove advantageous in certain
challenging situations: wars, tribal or modern; social strife of many kinds; and migrations to new
environments. Together, the steady dandelions and the mercurial orchids offer an adaptive flexibility
that neither can provide alone. Together, they open a path to otherwise unreachable individual and
collective achievements.
This orchid hypothesis also answers a fundamental evolutionary question that the vulnerability
hypothesis cannot. If variants of certain genes create mainly dysfunction and trouble, how have they
survived natural selection? Genes so maladaptive should have been selected out. Yet about a quarter of
all human beings carry the best?documented gene variant for depression, while more than a fifth carry
the variant that Bakermans?Kranenburg studied, which is associated with externalizing, antisocial, and
violent behaviours, as well as ADHD, anxiety, and depression. The vulnerability hypothesis can’t account
for this. The orchid hypothesis can.
This is a transformative, even startling view of human frailty and strength. For more than a decade,
proponents of the vulnerability hypothesis have argued that certain gene variants underlie some of
humankind’s most grievous problems: despair, alienation, cruelties both petty and epic. The orchid
hypothesis accepts that proposition. But it adds, tantalizingly, that these same troublesome genes play a
critical role in our species’ astounding success.
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The orchid hypothesis—sometimes called the plasticity hypothesis, the sensitivity hypothesis, or the
differential?susceptibility hypothesis—is too new to have been tested widely. Many researchers, even
those in behavioural science, know little or nothing of the idea. A few—chiefly those with broad
reservations about ever tying specific genes to specific behaviours—express concerns. But as more
supporting evidence emerges, the most common reaction to the idea among researchers and clinicians
is excitement. A growing number of psychologists, psychiatrists, child?development experts, geneticists,
ethologists, and others are beginning to believe that, as Karlen Lyons?Ruth, a developmental
psychologist at Harvard Medical School, puts it, “It’s time to take this seriously.”
With the data gathered in the video intervention, the Leiden team began to test the orchid hypothesis.
Could it be, they wondered, that the children who suffer most from bad environments also profit the
most from good ones? To find out, Bakermans?Kranenburg and her colleague Marinus van Ijzendoorn
began to study the genetic makeup of the children in their experiment. Specifically, they focused on one
particular “risk allele” associated with ADHD and externalizing behaviour. (An allele is any of the variants
of a gene that takes more than one form; such genes are known as polymorphisms. A risk allele, then, is
simply a gene variant that increases your likelihood of developing a problem.)
Bakermans?Kranenburg and van Ijzendoorn wanted to see whether kids with a risk allele for ADHD and
externalizing behaviours (a variant of a dopamine?processing gene known as DRD4) would respond as
much to positive environments as to negative. A third of the kids in the study had this risk allele; the
other two?thirds had a version considered a “protective allele,” meaning it made them less vulnerable to
bad environments. The control group, who did not receive the intervention, had a similar distribution.
Both the vulnerability hypothesis and the orchid hypothesis predict that in the control group the kids
with a risk allele should do worse than those with a protective one. And so they did—though only
slightly. Over the course of 18 months, the genetically “protected” kids reduced their externalizing
scores by 11 percent, while the “at?risk” kids cut theirs by 7 percent. Both gains were modest ones that
the researchers expected would come with increasing age. Although statistically significant, the
difference between the two groups was probably unnoticeable otherwise.
The real test, of course, came in the group that got the intervention. How would the kids with the risk
allele respond? According to the vulnerability model, they should improve less than their counterparts
with the protective allele; the modest upgrade that the video intervention created in their environment
wouldn’t offset their general vulnerability.
As it turned out, the toddlers with the risk allele blew right by their counterparts. They cut their
externalizing scores by almost 27 percent, while the protective?allele kids cut theirs by just 12 percent
(improving only slightly on the 11 percent managed by the protective?allele population in the control
group). The upside effect in the intervention group, in other words, was far larger than the downside
effect in the control group. Risk alleles, the Leiden team concluded, really can create not just risk but
possibility.
Can liability really be so easily turned to gain? The paediatrician W. Thomas Boyce, who has worked with
many a troubled child in more than three decades of child?development research, says the orchid
hypothesis “profoundly recasts the way we think about human frailty.” He adds, “We see that when kids
with this kind of vulnerability are put in the right setting, they don’t merely do better than before, they
do the best—even better, that is, than their protective?allele peers. “Are there any enduring human
frailties that don’t have this other, redemptive side to them?”
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As I researched this story, I thought about such questions a lot, including how they pertained to my own
temperament and genetic makeup. Having felt the black dog’s teeth a few times over the years, I’d
considered many times having one of my own genes assayed—specifically, the serotonin?transporter
gene, also called the SERT gene, or 5?HTTLPR. This gene helps regulate the processing of serotonin, a
chemical messenger crucial to mood, among other things. The two shorter, less efficient versions of the
gene’s three forms, known as short/short and short/long (or S/S and S/L), greatly magnify your risk of
serious depression—if you hit enough rough road. The gene’s long/long form, on the other hand,
appears to be protective.
In the end, I’d always backed away from having my SERT gene assayed. Who wants to know his risk of
collapsing under pressure? Given my family and personal history, I figured I probably carried the
short/long allele, which would make me at least moderately depression?prone. If I had it tested I might
get the encouraging news that I had the long/long allele. Then again, I might find I had the dreaded,
riskier short/short allele. This was something I wasn’t sure I wanted to find out.
But as I looked into the orchid hypothesis and began to think in terms of plasticity rather than risk, I
decided maybe I did want to find out. So I called a researcher I know in New York who does depression
research involving the serotonin?transporter gene. The next day, FedEx left a package on my front porch
containing a specimen cup. I spat into it, examined what I’d produced, and spat again. Then I screwed
the cap tight, slid the vial into its little shipping tube, and put it back on the porch. An hour later, the
FedEx guy took it away.
Of all the evidence supporting the orchid?gene hypothesis, perhaps the most compelling comes from the
work of Stephen Suomi, a rhesus?monkey researcher who heads a sprawling complex of labs and
monkey habitats in the Maryland countryside—the National Institutes of Health’s Laboratory of
Comparative Ethology. For 41 years, first at the University of Wisconsin and then, beginning in 1983, in
the Maryland lab the NIH built specifically for him, Suomi has been studying the roots of temperament
and behaviour in rhesus monkeys—which share about 95 percent of our DNA, a number exceeded only
in apes. Rhesus monkeys differ from humans in obvious and fundamental ways. But their close
resemblance to us in crucial social and genetic respects reveals much about the roots of our own
behaviour—and has helped give rise to the orchid hypothesis.
Suomi learned his trade as a student and protégé of, and then a direct successor to, Harry Harlow, one
of the 20th century’s most influential and problematic behavioural scientists. When Harlow started his
work, in the 1930s, the study of childhood development was dominated by a ruthlessly mechanistic
behaviouralism. The movement’s leading figure in the United States, John Watson, considered mother
love “a dangerous instrument.” He urged parents to leave crying babies alone; to never hold them to
give pleasure or comfort; and to kiss them only occasionally, on the forehead. Mothers were important
less for their affection than as conditioners of behaviour.
With a series of ingenious but sometimes disturbingly cruel experiments on monkeys, Harlow broke with
this cool behaviouralism. His most famous experiment showed that baby rhesus monkeys, raised alone
or with same?age peers, preferred a foodless but fuzzy terrycloth surrogate “mother” over a wire?mesh
version that freely dispensed meals. He showed that these infants desperately wanted to bond, and that
depriving them of physical, emotional, and social attachment could create a near?paralyzing
dysfunction. In the 1950s this work provided critical evidence for the emerging theory of infant
attachment: a theory that, with its emphasis on rich, warm parent?child bonds and happy early
experiences, still dominates child?development theory (and parenting books) today.
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In the years since Suomi took over Harlow’s Wisconsin lab as a 28?year?old wunderkind, he has both
broadened and sharpened the inquiry Harlow started. New tools now let Suomi examine not just his
monkeys’ temperaments but also the physiological and genetic underpinnings of their behaviour. His
lab’s naturalistic environment allows him to focus not just on mother?child interactions but also on the
family and social environments that shape and respond to the monkeys’ behaviour. “Life in a rhesus?
monkey colony is very, very complicated,” Suomi says. The monkeys must learn to navigate a social
system that is highly nuanced and hierarchical. “Those who can manage this, do well,” Suomi told me.
“Those who don’t, don’t.”
Rhesus monkeys typically mature at about four or five years and live to about 20 in the wild. Their
development parallels our own at a fairly neat 1?to?4 ratio: a 1?year?old monkey is much like a 4?year?
old human being, a 4?year?old monkey is like a 16?year?old human being, and so on. A mother typically
gives birth annually, starting at around age 4. Though the monkeys copulate all year, the females’
fertility seasons are only a couple of months long. Since they tend to occur together, a troop usually
produces crops of babies that have same?age peers.
For the first month, the mother keeps the baby attached to her or within arm’s reach. At about two
weeks, the baby starts to explore, at first within only a few feet of its mother. These forays grow in
frequency, duration, and distance over the next six to seven months, but rarely do the babies pass out of
the mother’s sight line or earshot. If the young monkey gets frightened, it scampers back to the mother.
Often she’ll see trouble coming and pull the infant close.
When the monkey is about eight months old—a rhesus preschooler—its mother’s mating time arrives.
Anticipating another child, the mother allows the youngster to spend more and more time with its
cousins, with older siblings in the maternal line, and with occasional visitors from other families or
troops. The youngster’s family group, friends, and allies still provide protection when necessary.
A maturing female will stay with this group all her life. A male, however, will leave—often under
pressure from the females as he gets rowdier and rougher—when he’s 4 or 5, or roughly the equivalent
of a 16?to?20?year?old person. At first he’ll join an all?male gang that lives more or less separately. After
a few months to a year, he’ll leave the gang and try to charm, push, or sidle his way into a new family or
troop. If he succeeds, he becomes one of several adult males to serve as mate, companion, and muscle
for the several females. But only about half the males make it that far. Their transition period exposes
them to attacks from other young males, attacks from rival gangs, attacks from new troop members if
they play their cards wrong, and predation during any time they lack a gang’s or troop’s protection.
Many die in the transition.
Very early in his work, Suomi identified two types of monkeys that had trouble managing these
relations. One type, which Suomi calls a “depressed” or “neurotic” monkey, accounted for about 20
percent of each generation. These monkeys are slow to leave their mothers’ sides when young. As
adults they remain tentative, withdrawn, and anxious. They form fewer bonds and alliances than other
monkeys do.
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The other type, generally male, is what Suomi calls a “bully”: an unusually and indiscriminately
aggressive monkey. These monkeys accounted for 5 to 10 percent of each generation. “Rhesus monkeys
are fairly aggressive in general, even when young,” Suomi says, “and their play involves a lot of rough?
and?tumble. But usually no one gets hurt—except with these guys. They do stupid things most other
monkeys know not to. They repeatedly confront dominant monkeys. They get between moms and their
kids. They don’t know how to calibrate their aggression, and they don’t know how to read signs they
should back off. Their conflicts tend to always escalate.” These bullies also score poorly in tests of
monkey self?control. For instance, in a “cocktail hour” test that Suomi sometimes uses, monkeys get
unrestricted access to a neutral?tasting alcoholic drink for an hour. Most monkeys have three or four
drinks and then stop. The bullies, Suomi says, “drink until they drop.”
The neurotics and the bullies meet quite different fates. The neurotics mature late but do okay. The
females become jumpy mothers, but how their children turn out depends on the environment in which
the mothers raise them. If it’s secure, they become more or less normal; if it’s insecure, they become
jumpy too. The males, meanwhile, stay within their mothers’ family circles an unusually long time—up
to eight years. They’re allowed to do so because they don’t make trouble. And their longer stay lets
them acquire enough social savvy and diplomatic deference so that when they leave, they usually work
their way into new troops more successfully than do males who break away younger. They don’t get to
mate as prolifically as more confident, more assertive males do; they seldom rise high in their new
troops; and their low status can put them at risk in conflicts. But they’re less likely to die trying to get in
the door. They usually survive and pass on their genes.
The bullies fare much worse. Even as babies and youths, they seldom make friends. And by the time
they’re 2 or 3, their extreme aggression leads the troop’s females to simply run them out, by group force
if necessary. Then the male gangs reject them, as do other troops. Isolated, most of them die before
reaching adulthood. Few mate.
Suomi saw early on that each of these monkey types tended to come from a particular type of mother.
Bullies came from harsh, censorious mothers who restrained their children from socializing. Anxious
monkeys came from anxious, withdrawn, distracted mothers. The heritages were pretty clear?cut. But
how much of these different personality types passed through genes, and how much derived from the
manner in which the monkeys were raised?
To find out, Suomi split the variables. He took nervous infants of nervous mothers—babies who in
standardized newborn testing were already jumpy themselves—and gave them to especially nurturing
“supermoms.” These babies turned out very close to normal. Meanwhile, Dario Maestripieri of the
University of Chicago took secure, high?scoring infants from secure, nurturing mothers and had them
raised by abusive mothers. This setting produced nervous monkeys.
The lesson seemed clear. Genes played a role—but environment played an equally important one.
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When tools for the study of genes first became available, in the late 1990s, Suomi was quick to use them
to more directly examine the balance between genes and environment in shaping his monkeys’
development. He almost immediately struck gold, with a project he started in 1997 with Klaus?Peter
Lesch, a psychiatrist from the University of Würzburg. The year before, Lesch had published data
revealing, for the first time, that the human serotonin?transporter gene had three variants (the
previously mentioned short/short, short/long, and long/long alleles) and that the two shorter versions
magnified risk for depression, anxiety, and other problems. Asked to genotype Suomi’s monkeys, Lesch
did so. He found that they had the same three variants, though the short/short form was rare.
Suomi, Lesch, and NIH colleague J. Dee Higley set about doing a type of study now recognized as a
classic “gene?by?environment” study. First they took cerebral spinal fluid from 132 juvenile rhesus
monkeys and analyzed it for a serotonin metabolite, called 5?HIAA, that’s considered a reliable indicator
of how much serotonin the nervous system is processing. Lesch’s studies had already shown that
depressed people with the short/long serotonin?transporter allele had lower 5?HIAA levels, reflecting
less?efficient serotonin processing. He and Suomi wanted to see if the finding would hold true in
monkeys. If it did, it would provide more evidence for the genetic dynamic shown in Lesch’s studies. And
finding such a dynamic in rhesus monkeys would confirm their value as genetic and behavioural models
for studying human behaviour.
After Suomi, Lesch, and Higley had grouped the monkeys’ 5?HIAA levels according to their serotonin
genotype (short/long or long/long, but not short/short, which was too rare to be of use), they also
sorted the results by whether the monkeys had been raised by their mothers or as orphans with only
same?aged peers. When their colleague Allison Bennett charted the results on a bar graph showing 5?
HIAA levels, all of the mother?reared monkeys, no matter which allele they had, showed serotonin
processing in the normal range. The metabolite levels of the peer?raised monkeys, however, diverged
sharply by genotype: the short/long monkeys in that group processed serotonin highly inefficiently (a
risk factor for depression and anxiety), whereas the long/long monkeys processed it robustly. When
Suomi saw the results, he realized that he finally had proof of a behaviourally relevant gene?by?
environment interaction in his monkeys. “I took one look at that graph,” he told me, “and said, ‘Let’s go
pop some champagne.’”
Suomi and Lesch published their results in 2002 in Molecular Psychiatry, a relatively new journal about
behavioural genetics. The paper formed part of a surge of gene?by?environment studies of mood and
behavioural disorders. That same year, two psychologists at King’s College, London, Avshalom Caspi and
Terrie Moffitt, published the first of two large longitudinal studies (both drawing on life histories of
hundreds of New Zealanders) that would prove particularly influential. The first, published in Science,
showed that the short allele of another major neurotransmitter?processing gene (known as the MAOA
gene) sharply increased the chance of antisocial behaviour in human adults who’d been abused as
children. The second, in 2003 and also in Science, showed that people with short/short or short/long
serotonin?transporter alleles, if exposed to stress, faced a higher?than?normal risk of depression.
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These and dozens of similar studies were critical to establishing the vulnerability hypothesis over the last
few years. Yet many of these studies also contained data that supported the orchid hypothesis—but
went unnoticed or unremarked at the time. (Jay Belsky, the child?development psychologist, has
recently documented more than two dozen such studies.) Both of Caspi and Moffitt’s seminal papers in
Science, for example, contain raw data and graphs showing that for people who did not face severe or
repeated stress, the risk alleles in question heightened resistance to aggression or depression. And the
data in Suomi and Lesch’s 2002 Molecular Psychiatry paper, in which peer?reared monkeys with the
risky serotonin?transporter allele appeared to process serotonin inefficiently, also showed that mother?
reared infants with that same allele processed serotonin 10 percent more efficiently than even mother?
raised infants who had the supposedly protective allele.
It’s fascinating to examine these studies with the orchid hypothesis in mind. Focus on just the bad?
environment results, and you see only vulnerability. Focus on the good?environment results, and you
see that the risk alleles usually produce better results than the protective ones. Securely raised 7?year?
old boys with the DRD4 risk allele for ADHD, for instance, show fewer symptoms than their securely
raised protective?allele peers. Non?abused teenagers with that same risk allele show lower rates of
conduct disorder. Non?abused teens with the risky serotonin?transporter allele suffer less depression
than do non?abused teens with the protective allele. Other examples abound—even though, as Jay
Belsky points out, the studies were designed and analyzed primarily to spot negative vulnerabilities.
Belsky suspects that as researchers start to design studies that test for gene sensitivity rather than just
risk amplification, and as they increasingly train their sights on positive environments and traits, the
evidence for the orchid hypothesis will only grow.
Suomi gathered plenty of that evidence himself in the years after his 2002 study. He found, for example,
that monkeys who carried the supposedly risky serotonin?transporter allele, and who had nurturing
mothers and secure social positions, did better at many key tasks—creating playmates as youths,
making and drawing on alliances later on, and sensing and responding to conflicts and other dangerous
situations—than similarly blessed monkeys who held the supposedly protective allele. They also rose
higher in their respective dominance hierarchies. They were more successful.
Suomi made another remarkable discovery. He and others assayed the serotonin?transporter genes of
seven of the 22 species of macaque, the primate genus to which the rhesus monkey belongs. None of
these species had the serotonin?transporter polymorphism that Suomi was beginning to see as a key to
rhesus monkeys’ flexibility. Studies of other key behavioural genes in primates produced similar results;
according to Suomi, assays of the SERT gene in other primates studied to date, including chimps,
baboons, and gorillas, turned up “nothing, nothing, nothing.” The science is young, and not all the data
is in. But so far, among all primates, only rhesus monkeys and human beings seem to have multiple
polymorphisms in genes heavily associated with behaviour. “It’s just us and the rhesus,” Suomi says.
This discovery got Suomi thinking about another distinction we share with rhesus monkeys. Most
primates can thrive only in their specific environments. Move them and they perish. But two kinds, often
called “weed” species, are able to live almost anywhere and to readily adapt to new, changing, or
disturbed environments: human beings and rhesus monkeys. The key to our success may be our
weediness. And the key to our weediness may be the many ways in which our behavioural genes can
vary.
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One morning this past May, Elizabeth Mallott, a researcher working at Suomi’s lab, arrived to start her
day at the main rhesus enclosure and found a half?dozen monkeys in her parking spot. They were
huddling close together, bedraggled and nervous. As Mallott got out of her car and moved closer, she
saw that some had bite wounds and scratches. Most monkeys who jump the enclosure’s double
electrified fences (it happens now and then) soon want to get back in. These monkeys did not. Neither
did several others that Mallott found between the two fences.
After caging the escapees in an adjacent building, Mallott, now joined by Matthew Novak, another
researcher who knew the colony well, entered through the double gates. The colony, numbering about
100?odd monkeys, had been together for about 30 years. Changes in its hierarchy usually came slowly
and subtly. But when Novak and Mallott started looking around, they realized that something big had
happened. “Animals were in places they weren’t supposed to be,” Novak would later tell me. “Animals
who don’t hang out together were sitting together. Social rules were suspended.”
It soon became apparent that the family group called Family 3, which for decades had ranked second to
a group called Family 1, had staged a coup. Family 3 had grown larger than Family 1 several years
before. But Family 1, headed by a savvy matriarch named Cocobean, had retained incumbency through
authority, diplomacy, and momentum. A week or so before the coup, however, one of Cocobean’s
daughters, Pearl, had been moved from the enclosure to the veterinary facility because her kidneys
seemed to be failing. Family 1’s most formidable male, meanwhile, had grown old and arthritic. Pearl
was especially close to Cocobean and, as the only daughter without children of her own, was particularly
likely to defend her. Her absence, along with the male’s infirmity, created a vulnerable moment for
Family 1.
“This may have been in the works for a couple weeks,” Novak says. “But as far as we can reconstruct,
the actual event, the night before we found the monkeys in the parking lot, started when a young
female named Fiona”—a 3?year?old Family 1 member, a borderline bully known to have initiated many a
scuffle—“started something with someone in Family 3. It escalated. Family 3 saw its chance. And they
just started to take Family 1 out. You could see it from who was wounded and who wasn’t, and who was
sitting in preferred places, and who was run out of the colony, and who was suddenly extremely
deferential. One other female in Family 1, Quark, was killed; another, Josie, was hurt so badly we had to
put her down. They’d gone after all of Cocobean’s other daughters, too. Somebody had bitten the big
male in Family 1 so badly he couldn’t use his arm. Fiona got roughed up pretty bad. It was a very
systematic scuffle. They went right at the head of the group and worked their way down.”
Soon after Novak described all this to me, he and I walked around the enclosure. Though it was the
middle of a broiling July day, downtime for the monkeys, you could see hints of the new order. Family 3
calmly occupied what seemed to be the new center of power, a corncrib near the pond (one of several
corncribs set out for shelter). They groomed one another, napped, and evenly stared at us as we stared
at them. A more nervous bunch clustered in another crib down the hill. When we got within 30 feet, the
largest monkey in the group shot up onto the cage bars. From 10 feet up it screamed at me, rattled the
bars, and showed some nasty teeth.
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