Preservation of Modern Architecture: The Beginning

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CHAPTER 1
Preservation of Modern
Architecture: The Beginning
Modern architecture defined design in the for the formulation of a sensible preservation policy
twentieth century and continues to influence
and approach.
that which has followed, and its preservation is as
A progressive atmosphere pervaded the Western
crucial as that of the architecture of any previous
world in the early twentieth century, stimulated by
period deemed historically significant. As modern
the opportunities engendered by advanced industrial
architecture increasingly becomes part of the
production. This forward-looking generation in
continuum of architectural history and its buildings
Europe, scarred by the devastation of World War I,
experience threats that range from material to func-
embraced modern architecture, seeking to improve
tional obsolescence, not to mention demolition due
its quality of life through the buildings and spaces of
to abandonment and lack of appreciation, concern
the workaday world. Through Le Corbusier’s five
for its preservation has grown. It is important to look
points, the Bauhaus, and the dialogue in such organ-
at the development of the protection of the twen-
izations as the Congrès International d’Architecture
tieth-century built fabric in order to determine the
Moderne (CIAM, or the International Congress of
most appropriate way to continue to approach these
Modern Architecture), architectural theory and built
buildings.
examples of the early modern movement during the
COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL
interwar years were defined by strong convictions
concerning social values and aesthetic objectives. The
Modern Architecture:
advancement of technology was seen not only as an
A Concise Overview
1-1 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Gateway Center. General view. This
The history of modern architecture is complex both
urban redevelopment project, today considered a success, was one
intellectually and visually and has been the subject
of the first in the US. Sponsored by the Equitable Life Assurance
Society, it was begun in 1950 and consisted of multiple new build-
of extensive scholarship. Defining some of its
ings designed by the firm Eggers & Higgins as well as a Hilton Hotel
designed by William B. Tabler. In Point State Park, which was devel-
specific characteristics will set the stage for a more
oped at the same time, the outlines of Fort Duquesne, one of
Pittsburgh’s earliest settlements, were made visible in the ground
comprehensive overview and provide a foundation
as seen in the photo.
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opportunity to create a new style with few or no
tions in the postwar period. Increased prefabrication
references to the past, but also as a tool for creating
predominated and was employed in everything from
more, improved, and healthier living and working
demountable warehouses to housing for war-industry
environments accessible to and affordable for
workers. Although some regarded such hastily
everyone. Visually, the plain white boxes associated
constructed buildings as flimsy, a need to work
with the early modern movement—with their flat
together toward common goals and to maximize
roofs, walls constructed out of concrete or concrete
resources both during and directly after the war made
block with stucco, and their steel strip windows—
the acceptance of new ideas and the new style possible.
were a distinct stylistic break from the load-bearing
With the end of World War II, modern architec-
masonry and wood buildings of the past. They were
ture became mainstream, and its ascendance
also the visual starting point for subsequent develop-
continued, to the point of near worldwide omnipres-
ments, as reflected in many buildings and building
ence by the end of the century. It found applications
typologies that, with their design simplicity, lack of
not only in residential architecture but also in a wide
ornament, spatial clarity, new ways of using materials,
variety of other building types, including public
and abundance of light pouring through large
buildings like schools, town halls, and libraries, as
windows, became in many people’s minds synony-
well as corporate structures, all generally categorized
mous with modern architecture. In the years
and visually recognizable under the umbrella of the
following the early modern movement, modern
International style, a term which itself became
architecture, with its links to social improvement,
widely accepted. In Europe, the destruction wrought
aesthetic change, and technological innovation,
by air and artillery bombing devastated historic cities
translated into a visible sign of modernity that rede-
on a scale never before seen; immediate, large-scale
fined the built fabric throughout Europe and in parts
rebuilding was needed. The social agenda and
of the Americas, Asia, and Africa.
economy of modern architecture coalesced in these
In the United States, the social and aesthetic
reconstruction efforts to build an optimistic future,
elements of modernism were present as well and
as exemplified in the endeavor to provide housing to
inspired many of the housing and design pioneers of
all—typically in combinations of high-rise apart-
the 1930s, but it was its economy of construction and
ment complexes and low-rise detached or
functionality, directly linked to a desire to provide serv-
semidetached structures—as quickly as possible.
ices and amenities to the greatest number of people,
Urban planning and architecture based on notions of
that helped modern design gain influence in the
human scale and interactions continued to evolve.
government-sponsored building programs during the
CIAM dissolved and the voice of the younger gener-
New Deal. With the beginning of World War II, both
ation, including Team Ten architects, among others,
the US government and private developers employed
gained prominence through the 1950s and into the
these concepts to rationalize the use of modern archi-
1960s, when Brutalism began to dominate the archi-
tecture to confront the overwhelming demand for
tectural vocabulary both in the United States and
industrial facilities and related housing generated by
Europe.
the war effort. While construction virtually ceased in
In the United States, the years immediately after
Europe during the war, in the US experimentation
the war were a time of seemingly endless opportu-
with new materials and streamlined production
nity and growth, tempered by the political and
processes evolved into innovations that found applica-
cultural rhetoric of the developing Cold War. It was
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a forward-looking period during which modernity,
Concurrently, the postwar period witnessed the
as defined more by the speed, simplicity, and func-
growth of regional modernisms for which the
tionality that helped to win the war and less by the
aesthetic and functional tenets established in Europe
socially conscious modernist theory of the European
during the 1920s and 1930s were adapted to the
designers, was accepted as the way of the future.
local climates and cultures in Africa, Latin America,
Spared Europe’s destruction, and without a corre-
and Asia. The influence of modernism in the prewar
sponding need to rebuild, the US managed a
period, for example, started in the 1930s, in the
relatively smooth transition to a peacetime economy:
construction of the White City in Tel Aviv, which
financial and space-planning efficiencies and tech-
was based on Bauhaus principles. The modernist
nological innovations fine-tuned during the war
idiom was exported to the European colonies in
were employed to remedy a nationwide lack of
Africa and Asia throughout the twentieth century;
building that had existed since the prewar decade
however, the forms and language of the
through the mass construction of housing, busi-
International style did not predominate until the
nesses, and infrastructure. The early optimism of
postwar period. The deliberate search for regional
modernity in the postwar years was reflected in the
expressions of modernism, pursued by local archi-
construction of many new buildings of every type,
tects, often developed as part of or subsequent to
and the international success of some iconic
new regimes embracing modernism as a symbol of a
modernist buildings like the United Nations, Lever
break with the past. In Latin America, for instance,
House, and the TWA Terminal in New York
modernism flourished in the postwar period.
prompted a broader adoption of this new style for all
Through numerous state commissions, Lucio Costa
types of civic and commercial buildings. From
(1902–1998) and Oscar Niemeyer (b. 1907) estab-
airports for the burgeoning air travel industry to
lished an increasingly distinct, free-form modern
performing arts centers for cultural appreciation to
vocabulary in Brazil starting in the late 1930s, as did
private residences and public housing providing
the landscape designer Roberto Burle Marx
decent, clean, affordable shelter for the general
(1909–1994). All three men were integrally involved
population, modern architecture symbolized a
in one of the most significant experiments with
progressive direction and hope for a better, more civil
modernism realized in the country: the construction
future. Even government buildings at all levels
of the modern city of Brasília, built 1956–1960
adopted a modernist appearance, often in concrete
(Figure 1-2). Other prominent concentrations of
rather than glass and steel, to reflect responsible
postwar modernism in Latin America include the
spending and to project strength and dependability.
work of Luis Barragán (1902–1988) in Mexico,
The positive perception of modernity, and specifi-
Ricardo Porro (b. 1925) in Cuba, and the
cally modern architecture, continued in the US
Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva
through the 1960s. But by the end of the decade, the
(1900–1975), each with its own regional characteris-
ubiquity of modern architecture had rendered it
tics and identity.
common and unpopular: it was no longer exciting.
With the onset of the 1970s, the stylistic homo-
By the 1970s, perceptions had shifted, and particu-
geneity began to disappear in Europe, the United
larly urban renewal projects, large-scale housing
States, and increasingly, across the globe; the
projects, and public plazas garnered increasingly
modernist forms were deemed austere and formulaic,
negative reactions.
and the modernist language slowly lost its starkness
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in favor of more ornate forms and surfaces. The back-
The History of Preserving
lash against modernism was partially manifested in
Modern Architecture
the growth of the eclectic and whimsical vocabulary
of postmodernism, which freely referenced tradi-
Although preserving modern architecture may seem to
tional styles. This fundamental philosophical and
be pushing the preservation discipline in new direc-
design shift was not, however, a rupture equal to that
tions, the increasing focus on modern architecture is
which occurred at the onset of modernism, but rather
not unique in the evolution of the appreciation for
a stylistic phenomenon that left the materials,
earlier periods’ distinct traditional architectural styles.
typologies, and efficiencies of construction constant.
Interest often starts with collectors, who bring atten-
(The challenges currently confronting preservation-
tion to the art and artifacts of a particular period once
ists regarding modern architecture—notably issues of
a sufficient amount of time has passed—twenty-five
temporality and ubiquity—will continue to present
to thirty years—to allow for reflection and, likely,
themselves as the postmodernist period in turn gains
nostalgia. Following that, the recognition of a
historical significance and thus requires evaluation by
famous architect or building expands awareness and
the preservation discipline.)
appreciation for the entire period. Individual iconic
structures noted as significant or as contributing to
the oeuvre of a major architect are often the first
focus of preservationists, especially as they come
under threat from materials failure or deferred main-
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Brasília, Brazil. View of the National Congress Building.
Planned by Lucia Costa, designed by Oscar Niemeyer, and land-
tenance, from functional or physical obsolescence as
scaped by Roberto Burle Marx, Brasília was largely constructed
between 1956 and 1960 and was considered a textbook example of a
the buildings edge toward the half-century mark (the
modern city. It was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1987,
barely thirty years after its completion.
point at which historic significance is considered in
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most jurisdictions), or by development pressures in
came to the forefront. A comprehensive recognition
the form of demolition or insensitive change. With
of the recent past as valuable heritage, however, did
the preservation success or failure of these icons as
not gain momentum until the 1990s. Therefore, it is
rallying points, public awareness and preservation
important to summarize both the development of
efforts expand to include other noted buildings,
these preservation efforts in Europe and the key role
architects, and trends of the period, growing to
icons and master architects played in promoting
general acceptance of the period as worthy of saving.
preservation interest in modern architecture.
For modern architecture, a similar pattern
The Bauhaus, designed by Walter Gropius
occurred, though at different times in different
(1883–1969) and built between 1925 and 1926, is
countries for different reasons. In the United States,
the building most identified with the inception of
for example, the growing appeal of midcentury
the modern movement in Germany in the 1920s
modern design, such as Saarinen’s tables, Eames’s
(Figure 1-3). Due to its importance as an educa-
chairs, the Barcelona chair by Mies, and Noguchi’s
tional institution, the school was initially repaired in
many lights, predates the restoration work on many
the 1940s and subsequently reopened after having
modern architectural icons in the last decade of the
been seriously damaged during the war. As early as
twentieth century. The architecture and the accom-
1964 it was officially recognized locally, and ten
panying design interiors and finishes only became
years later it was deemed a national (East German)
noteworthy for a wider audience of designers, archi-
landmark. Following the designation, and fifty years
tects, and collectors in the first few years of the
after its construction, a major restoration effort in
twenty-first century. In the larger panorama, though,
the mid-1970s repaired its failing curtain wall.1 As
the preservation of modern architecture began in
the seminal building for the modern movement,
Europe, where the style developed, with the icons of
preservation work at the Bauhaus continued over the
the movement.
years and expanded from its focus on the original
building to include the residential facilities that are
part of the complex and other Bauhaus buildings
Preserving the Icons in Europe:
designed for the city of Dessau. As an icon of
The Beginning
modernism, the preservation of the Bauhaus was
The initial interest in modernist buildings as
fundamental to the initial recognition of the signifi-
heritage symbols began in Europe as early as the
cance of both the style and the period as a whole.
1950s and 1960s, when insensitive changes and
As with the Bauhaus, conscious preservation
deferred maintenance started to threaten the struc-
efforts for modern buildings typically develop
tures famous for their association with the modern
through a focus on the legacy of one of the masters;
movement, a single architect, or the ideals of modern
the most salient example is Le Corbusier (1887–
design. These efforts grew slowly and were rein-
1965) in France. As the quintessential example of his
forced gradually by revisions to legislation and
five points on architecture, the Villa Savoye, built
increasing governmental attempts to identify impor-
1929–1931, was a milestone for the recognition of
tant buildings from this time period. As the
modern architecture in France (Color Plate 1).2 Le
preservation of these iconic buildings was addressed
Corbusier himself was instrumental in advocating
on a limited basis throughout the 1960s and 1970s,
for the preservation of the house in Poissy, though
other significant prewar buildings intermittently
the building was not designated a national historic
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monument by the French Ministry of Culture until
site was effectuated in a meaningful way.6
after the architect’s death.3 In fact, the first work by
Nonetheless, the focus on Zonnestraal in the late
Le Corbusier to be so recognized was the postwar
1980s and early 1990s drew attention to the threats
Unité d’Habitation in Marseilles in 1964 (Figure 4-
to modern buildings and the challenges in their
3). In 1968, the Fondation Le Corbusier was
conservation and eventually became fundamental to
established as part of the Villa Savoye preservation
the larger European efforts to address the protection
efforts, in conjunction with the Association of the
of modern architecture.
Friends of Le Corbusier and the French Ministry of
In West Germany, the restoration effort of the
Culture; it continues to advocate for the preservation
Weissenhof housing development in Stuttgart was
of the architect’s body of work.4 Conservation work
another early and important benchmark for the
has progressed on the Villa Savoye and includes two
preservation of modernist buildings. Created in
major renovations that resulted from the reinterpre-
1927 for an exhibition titled “Die Wohnung” by the
tation of the house’s history and significance and the
Deutscher Werkbund, the project showcased the
introduction of more rigorous preservation practices.
potential of modern housing through a settlement of
In another European center of modernism, the
some thirty-three houses and sixty-three apartments
Netherlands, concern for the heritage of the 1920s
designed by seventeen different architects, including
and 1930s also came to the forefront in the early
Le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969), J. J.
1960s; it was a reaction to the threat of changing uses
P. Oud (1890–1963), Mart Stam (1899–1986),
requiring significant alterations to buildings that
Walter Gropius, Hans Scharoun (1893–1972), and
embodied the ideals of modern design. The landmark
Peter Behrens (1868–1940) in a surprisingly
tuberculosis sanatorium Zonnestraal, designed by
coherent manner.7 The municipality sold the experi-
Jan Duiker (1890–1935) in collaboration with
mental residential development in 1938. Following
Bernard Bijvoet (1889–1979) and Jan Gerko
World War II, a number of damaged houses in the
Wiebenga (1886–1974) between 1926 and 1928,
center of the site were demolished for new construc-
was eventually partially abandoned when tubercu-
tion, threatening the coherence of the original
losis ceased to be a major threat to public health
design. Advocacy for the significance of the
(Color Plate 2). In response to the poor condition of
remaining houses on the site began in 1956 and
some of the buildings, a major Dutch architectural
resulted in a local landmark listing in 1958, though
magazine dedicated an entire issue to the project in
insensitive changes continued. Between 1981 and
1962.5 The buildings continued to be used as a
1987 extensive renovation was finally undertaken to
hospital through the 1980s; however, the fate of the
remove some of these later additions.8 In 2002 the
complex as a coherent expression of modernism
two buildings designed by Le Corbusier were once
remained secondary to its viability as a medical
again restored, this time converted into a visitors
facility. It was not until the late 1990s and early
center and a museum devoted to the history of the
2000s that preservation of significant portions of the
settlement and its restoration.9 The early recognition
of the significance of Weissenhof was not isolated;
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the acknowledgment of housing as fundamental to
Dessau, Germany. The Bauhaus. Walter Gropius, 1925–1926.
General view. The building, a seminal icon of modern architecture,
the heritage of this period occurred throughout the
was initially renovated in 1960–1961 and again in 1965. Upon its
fiftieth anniversary in 1976, the steel window-wall system was recon-
country and important efforts were made to preserve
structed in aluminum, maintaining the overall transparency of the
design in the new material, especially on the corners, as seen here.
these early housing estates.10
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These four examples, which were hallmarks of the
modern building in the UK.13 The restoration of the
modern movement, set professionals and the public
Notre Dame du Raincy, designed by Auguste Perret
in East Germany, France, Holland, West
(1874–1954) and built between 1922–1923 in
Germany—indeed all across Europe—on the path
France, was also completed in 1987. The reconstruc-
to thinking about preserving other structures from
tion of Mies’s 1929 Barcelona Pavilion, demolished
the prewar modern movement era. The steady
in 1930, was proposed in 1980 and initiated three
recognition of buildings through national listing
years later. The recognition of the major modern
began, albeit intermittently, in the 1970s. In the UK
buildings in many countries—created as much by
for example, a group of the icons of the interwar
the lost battles as those that were successful—
period, including the Nottingham Boots Pharma -
focused attention on the lesser known but equally
ceutical Factory designed in 1932 by Sir Owen
important examples of the prewar period.14
Williams (1890–1969), was included in 1970 on the
list of architecturally, historically, or culturally signif-
The Broadening Scope: The Consolidation
icant structures managed by English Heritage, the
of International Efforts and Looking Beyond
agency specifically responsible for preservation in
the Icons
the UK (Figure 4-30).11 The new listing was the
result of a change in legislation that extended the
Although advocacy for the early-period buildings
cutoff date for a building’s eligibility from 1840 to
led to intermittent restoration, at the end of the
1939. Other modern buildings, such as High and
1980s modern buildings remained the focus of a
Over in Amersham, Buckinghamshire, designed by
relatively small group of heritage professionals,
Amyas Connell (1901–1980) in 1929, were subse-
architects, and scholars. By the mid-1990s, however,
quently added to the list at the end of the same
a broad international dialogue had begun to address
decade. This occurred, however, in a context in
specific preservation issues concerning modern
which Art Deco and Neo-Georgian buildings were
buildings and the necessity to expand the study of
still not readily accepted or recommended for listing
the period. This corresponded to the growing
status in England.12 It was not until 1987 that build-
activity focused on the preservation of twentieth-
ings constructed after 1939 were even allowed to be
century architecture at national and local levels.
considered for listing, when a thirty-year rule (still in
When the Bauhaus Dessau structures and earlier
effect) for English Heritage–listing consideration
buildings in Weimar were added to the World
was adopted.
Heritage List in 1996, it reflected the broader efforts
Beyond the recognition of iconic buildings, the
at all levels of cultural heritage management to
prominent architects and structures of the prewar
recognize early modern architecture.15
period became the focus of the next wave of recog-
The disparate strands of modern architecture
nition and preservation efforts, which continued to
preservation in the European countries coalesced in
develop at a local or national level and gained more
1989 when the concern for and focus on Zonnestraal
prominence during the 1980s. In 1987, the careful
spurred the renovation’s architects in the
restoration of the abandoned Penguin Pool at the
Netherlands to reach out to other professionals,
London Zoo, completed in 1934 by Berthold
academics, and cultural heritage agencies with
Lubetkin (1901–1990) with Tecton, his architectural
interest and expertise in modern architecture,
firm, was one of the first restoration efforts for a
including existing organizations such as the
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Fondation Le Corbusier in France, the Thirties
vidual buildings, both for their singular significance
Society in England (renamed the Twentieth
and their contribution to the overall context. As a
Century Society in 1992), and the Fundació Mies
result, during the last two decades of the twentieth
van der Rohe in Spain. From this initiative, the
century, surveys became increasingly common. In
International Working Party for the Documentation
the Netherlands, for example, the built environment
and Conservation of Buildings, Sites, and
from 1850 through 1940, constructed during the era
Neighborhoods of the Modern Movement, or
of industrialization, was documented. This occurred
DOCOMOMO, was founded.16 Within a year, the
simultaneously in Great Britain and subsequently in
organization held an international conference in
the United States. In the UK and US, surveys (of
Eindhoven, Netherlands. This first conference was
varying comprehensiveness) were frequently theme-
successful in attracting some 140 professionals from
based and significantly changed the approach to the
twenty different countries and included presenta-
identification of this heritage in both countries—
tions on a wide range of projects and initiatives. The
notably in the UK, where numerous buildings that
conference concluded with the adoption of the
were previously denied heritage status were added to
Eindhoven Statement, essentially a mission state-
English Heritage’s list. As a result of the Dutch
ment for the nascent organization that set goals for
survey, various social housing projects that had been
gathering and disseminating information regarding
early experiments in prefabrication and semi-indus-
modernist architecture and for expanding the preser-
trialized building, along with representations of the
vation mandate beyond iconic buildings.
work of architect W. M. Dudok (1884–1974) in
The formation of DOCOMOMO not only
Hilversum, Netherlands, and the famous Van Nelle
reflected the burgeoning movement in preserving
Factory built between 1925 and 1931 to the designs
modern architecture, it also provided a springboard
of J. A. Brinkman (1902–1949) and L. C. van der
for the discussion and study of the history and
Vlugt (1894–1936) in Rotterdam were all designated.
conservation of modern architecture. Although the
With the growth of these initiatives and their
development of modernism (and therefore its
consolidation at an international level, the focus
preservation) in each European country is unique,
broadened and began to include many different
many of the preservation issues are nonetheless
building types as well as less iconic yet regionally
similar, whether they relate to technical preservation
significant architecture. In addition, new and innova-
or establishing significance within a national or
tive preservation strategies had to be devised for the
international context; the activities and publications
sometimes unprecedented scale of these buildings.
of DOCOMOMO became a forum for sharing this
Van Nelle, for instance, eventually became one of the
scholarship and experience.17 Most importantly, the
more meaningful preservation experiments for early
increased public interest and academic recognition
industrial buildings. As a result of intensive coopera-
stimulated not only further scholarship, but also the
tion in a public-private partnership involving the
surveying and identification of other important
owner, regulatory agencies, the new developer, and
twentieth-century buildings.
other interested parties, the adaptive reuse scheme
In the same vein, frantic, last-minute attempts to
has been sensitive to both the architectural signifi-
save significant modern buildings from demolition
cance and functional viability of the building.18 As
led to the realization that comprehensive surveys of
Van Nelle demonstrates, the preservation of modern
the period were necessary for the assessment of indi-
architecture in Europe has generally encountered
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