Reduce Impacts of Pollution and Coral Disease

4 Reduce Impacts of Pollution and Coral
Disease

Introduction

Anthropogenic and natural causes have produced major structural and functional changes among
coral reefs worldwide that have escalated over the last 30 years. Land-based and marine
pollution, diseases, and bleaching concomitant with global climate change are among the most
recognized, widespread, and pervasive threats impacting coral reef ecosystems. Many locations
are subjected to multiple, sequential stressors with synergistic interactions that are especially
detrimental to reefs, culminating in precipitous declines in coral cover, and ecosystem shifts to a
dominance by macroalgae. Projects in this spend plan category work to reduce these impacts.

The complex interactions among stressors and their effects on corals and coral reef ecosystems
are generally poorly understood, making it difficult to establish causal links to local or regional
declines in coral health. Reef species experiencing persistent environmental disturbances may
respond with acute mortality (manifesting as visible signs of “disease” and recent tissue loss),
resulting in rapid loss of diversity and abundance. Corals also display sub-acute, sub-lethal
effects when exposed initially or at low levels to these stressors, which can have measurable (but
not necessarily directly visible) effects on growth and reproduction. When unchecked, these
stresses may ultimately result in cascading ecosystem deterioration.

Some of the most important and least understood interactions are relationships between coral
health and anthropogenic stressors such as pollution. Environmental stressors associated with
degraded water quality (e.g., high nutrients, toxins and sediments) and climate changes (e.g.,
elevated temperature) are often cited as potential factors causing coral disease, bleaching, and
mortality. Yet rarely have there been adequate measurements and studies causally linking coral
disease to exposures to environmental stressors, and several recent studies suggest that disease
prevalence has also increased in more remote locations that are removed from direct human
impacts. Through better understanding of interactions between pollution, disease agents and the
responses of coral reef species, the management community will be better poised to mitigate the
stressors and manage their impacts before irreparable damage is done. Responding to these
threats requires: 1) removal of marine debris and efforts to reduce future accumulations; 2)
implementation of comprehensive strategies to reduce discharge of pollutants into coral reef
ecosystems; and 3) refinement of existing technologies and development of multidisciplinary
approaches to understand disease mechanisms, track occurrence, and predict impacts of disease
at multiple spatial and temporal scales.



III-4-1

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This spend plan category includes three subcategories:

Reduce Marine-Based Sources of Pollution
Reduce Land-Based Sources of Pollution
Reduce Impacts of Coral Disease

These subcategories are being addressed through:

Refinement of strategies and development of tools to assess the biological, chemical, and
physical conditions of reefs.
Application of and training for managers, scientists and graduate students in standardized
field and laboratory methodologies.
Strategic laboratory and field research to forecast, characterize, and understand extent
and impacts of disease and pollution.
Direct actions to reduce pollution and remove marine debris.
Technical assistance to government agencies, scientists, managers and stakeholders
through workshops and other venues in the development of management and mitigation
responses.
Financial assistance for projects to understand and address impacts of pollution and
disease.

Between 2002 and 2006, the CRCP provided $16.4 million (M) to support 126 projects in this
category, which accounted for 13% of the overall CRCP funding and 10% of overall number of
projects (Exhibit III-4-1a).


Exhibit III-4-1a
Investment in Reduce Impacts of Pollution and Coral Disease
2002-2006

Number
%
%
Spend Plan Category
of
Category % Total
% Total
Projects
Funding
Category
Projects
Projects
Projects
Projects
Reduce Impacts of Pollution and Coral Disease
126
9.7
9.7
$16,427,256
12.7
12.7
Reduce Marine-Based Sources of Pollution 18
14.3
1.4
$11,579,918
70.5
8.9
Reduce Land-Based Sources of Pollution 80
63.5
6.2
$3,023,747
18.4
2.3
Reduce Impacts of Coral Disease 28
22.2
2.2
$1,823,591
11.1
1.4

Exhibit III-4-1b shows the distribution of investments in each of these subcategories during 2002
to 2006.


III-4-2

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Reduce Impacts of Pollution and Coral Disease:
Investments in Subcategories
Reduce Marine-Based
18.4%
Sources of Pollution
Reduce Land-Based Sources
of Pollution
70.5%
11.1%
Reduce Impacts of Coral
Disease

Exhibit III-4-1b. Distribution of Investments by Subcategory, 2002-2006


Subcategory: Reduce Marine-Based Sources of Pollution

a. Introduction to Subcategory

This category largely involves efforts to reduce the impacts of marine debris and interagency
debris removal efforts. Much of this work is focused in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands (NWHI),
which due to their location with respect to the Subtropical Convergence Zone, contain
extraordinarily high densities of derelict fishing gear. Lost and abandoned fishing gear,
primarily large trawl and drift nets from all around the Pacific Rim, float into the region. Upon
entering the more protected, low-energy, shallow water environments inside the barrier reefs of
the NWHI, the derelict fishing gear entangles and kills endangered Hawaiian monk seals,
threatened green sea turtles, seabirds, and other wildlife. In addition, as in other jurisdictions
impacted by marine debris, the gear damages sensitive coral reef habitat, smothers benthic flora
and fauna, presents a hazard to safe navigation, and serves as a potential vector for the
introduction of invasive species. CRCP set an internal goal to remove the major accumulations
of marine debris in the NWHI by 2005.

Reducing marine-based sources of pollution is also addressed by the CRCP via outreach
activities, workshops, and reference maps and models for oil and chemical spill responders.

Between 2002 and 2006, the CRCP provided $11.6M to support 18 projects in this subcategory.
This subcategory accounted for 70% of funding within the Reduce Impacts of Pollution and
Coral Disease category and 9% of overall CRCP funding; and 14% of projects in the category
and 1% of overall CRCP projects between 2002 and 2006 (see Exhibit III-4-1a). Regionally,
99% of the Marine Debris budget went to Pacific activities (see Exhibit III-4-3).

The distribution of funds by tool for this subcategory is shown in Exhibits III-4-2a and -2b.


III-4-3

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Exhibit III-4-2a
Reduce Marine-Based Sources of Pollution
Investments by Tool








nding
Tool
Funding
Funding
Funding
Funding
Funding
% of Total
Funding
% of Total
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
S
ubcategory Projects
Subcategory Fu
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
TOTALS 2002-2006
Ecosystem Research
0 $0
0 $0
1
$4,500
0 $0
0
$0
1 5.6
$4,500
0
Socioeconomic
0 $0
0 $0
0 $0
0 $0
0
$0
0 0
$0
0
Research
Mapping and
1 $100,000
1 $18,000
1 $65,500
1 $38,000
0
$0
4 22.2
$221,500
1.9
Monitoring
Outreach
1
$15,000
0 $0
1
$4,000
0 $0
1
$21,000
3 16.7
$40,000
0.3
Management: Direct
2 $3,100,000 2 $3,055,000
1 $2,632,438
1 $2,000,000
1 $394,480 7 38.9
$11,181,918
96.6
Implementation
Management:
Training and
Technical
1 $110,000
0
$0
1 $15,000
1 $7,000
0
$0
3 16.7
$132,000
1.1
Assistance
None or N/A
0 $0
0 $0
0 $0
0 $0
0
$0
0 0
$0
0
TOTAL
5
$3,325,000
3
$3,073,000
5
$2,721,438
3
$2,045,000
2
$415,480
18
100
$11,579,918
100





III-4-4

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Reduce Marine-Based Sources of Pollution:
Investment by Tool
1.1% 1.9%
Ecosystem Research
Socioeconomic Research (0%)
Mapping and Monitoring
Outreach
Management: Direct Implementation
96.6%
Management: Training and Technical
Assistance
None or N/A (0%)

Exhibit III-4-2b. Distribution of Investments by Tool, 2002-2006

The distribution of funds by region for this subcategory is shown in Exhibits III-4-3a and -3b.


Exhibit III-4-3a
Reduce Marine-Based Sources of Pollution
Investments by Region








nding
Region
Funding
Funding
Funding
Funding
Funding
% of Total
Funding
% of Total
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
Number of Projects
S
ubcategory Projects
Subcategory Fu
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
TOTALS 2002-2006
Atlantic/Caribbean
2
$51,300
0 $0
0 $0
0 $0
0
$0
2 9.5 $51,300
0.4
Pacific
4 $3,246,200 3 $3,073,000
4 $2,709,438
2 $2,038,000
1 $394,480 14 66.7 $11,461,118
99.0
Freely Associated
States
1
$27,500
0 $0
0 $0
1
$7,000
1
$21,000
3 14.3 $55,500
0.5
International
0 $0
0 $0
1
$7,500
0 $0
0
$0
1 4.8
$7,500
0.1
All Regions
0 $0
0 $0
1
$4,500
0 $0
0
$0
1 4.8
$4,500
0.0
TOTAL
7
3,325,000
3
3,073,000
6
2,721,438
3
2,045,000
2
415,480
21
100
11,579,918
100



III-4-5

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Reduce Marine-Based Sources of Pollution:
Investment by Region
0.5%
0.1%
Atlantic/Caribbean
0.4%
Pacific
Freely Associated States
99.0%
International
All Regions

Exhibit III-4-3b. Distribution of Investments by Region, 2002-2006


b. Activities

Specially trained teams of marine debris specialists systematically survey the reefs of the
NWHI to locate derelict fishing gear and other marine debris. Once derelict gear is
identified, locations/coordinates are recorded using Global Positioning System (GPS)
units. Specialists also record descriptive data for both the derelict fishing gear (e.g., type,
size, construction), and the habitat in which the debris is found. The debris is carefully
removed by divers to avoid any further damage to the reef, and brought back to Honolulu
and recycled with the cooperation of industry partners.
Additional internal NOAA projects include developing tools to help managers predict the
potential impact of an oil or chemical spill on sensitive reef resources.
Grant-supported activities include educating boat owners in the Caribbean on how to best
dispose of waste in marinas, marine debris removal from coral reefs in Puerto Rico, and
damage assessment of coral reef organisms and endangered species impacted in Puerto
Rico.

c. Funding Recipients and Partners

To carry out the projects in this subcategory, the CRCP partnered with the NOAA offices and
external partners listed in Exhibit III-4-4.


III-4-6

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Exhibit III-4-4
Reduce Marine-Based Sources of Pollution
Funding Recipients and Partners

NOAA Offices
Other Federal
States and Territories
Fishery Management
Non-Governmental
Agencies
Councils
Organizations
• NMFS - Pacific
• DOI -
• Florida
• Western Pacific
• Amigos de Amona
Islands Fisheries
Papahanaumokuakea
Science Center
Marine National
Monument
• NMFS - Office of


• Caribbean
• Environmental
Habitat Conservation
Protection in the
Caribbean
• NOS - Marine


• Gulf of Mexico

Debris Program
• NOS -




Papahanaumokuakea
Marine National
Monument

Large-scale debris removal efforts were led by the CRCP through the NMFS Pacific Islands
Fisheries Science Center and involved many other NOAA, Federal, state, corporate, and NGO
partners. In 2005, the NOS Marine Debris Program, in partnership with the Papahanaumokuakea
Marine National Monument, became a key partner in funding continuing removal efforts.

d. Outputs

The NWHI marine debris program, initiated in 1996, has removed over 511 metric tons to date.
Most was removed between 2001-2006 from Kure and Pearl and Hermes Atolls, Lisianski and
Laysan Islands, Maro Reef, and French Frigate Shoals (see Exhibit III-4-5).



III-4-7

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Northwestern Hawaiian Islands:
Marine Debris Removal Weights
600
Annual
Cumulative
511
492
500
440
400
ons)
326
t
t
r
i
c
e
300
m
(
219
i
ght
e
W
200
121
107
114
97
100
60
62
52
37
25
22
19
4 4
8 12
0
1996/97
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006

Exhibit III-4-5. Annual and cumulative total debris removed from the NWHI


In the Caribbean, 3,235 kg of marine debris were removed from coral reef and beach habitats of
the Mona Channel (NE of Puerto Rico). Other key outputs include a public awareness campaign
in Puerto Rico on the threats of marine debris to marine life, and the development of a clean
marinas initiative for Simpson Lagoon, St. Martin.

Outputs for predictive tools include:

Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps of American Samoa, Guam, and CNMI.
ESI maps serve as quick references for oil and chemical spill responders and coastal zone
managers. They highlight shorelines sensitive to oiling, sensitive biological resources
such as coral reefs and seabird colonies, and vulnerable human-resources such as water
intakes and swimming beaches.
The 2003 Oil and Sea Turtles: Biology, Planning, and Response report, which provides
basic information on response activities that might be considered in sea turtle habitat,
including unintended adverse impacts to turtles that may be caused by response activities.
Additions to NOAA’s surface current models to evaluate the potential natural dispersion
of a spill over coral reefs.




III-4-8

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e. Outcomes

In the NWHI, the majority of the derelict fishing gear that was deposited on the reefs has been
removed, eliminating this debris as a threat to threatened and endangered species and coral reef
habitat. A study examining rates of marine debris accumulation in the NHWI (Marine Pollution
Bulletin) found that accumulated debris densities and weights were greater in lagoonal reef areas,
and that NWHI debris accumulation is higher than originally anticipated. This information is
being used to design and change management plans to remove debris at a maintenance mode
rate.

f. Challenges

The remote location of the NWHI poses significant challenges in addressing marine debris
removal. Marine debris specialists must be highly trained to conduct safe operations and handle
emergency situations without immediate external support. In addition, access to the NWHI is
limited and expensive. Chartering a vessel with the necessary specifications is the most effective
field option, but is not always feasible due to limited resources. An alternative is the use of
NOAA vessels, which have been used during maintenance mode operations. However, ship time
on NOAA vessels is highly competitive and often constrained by lack of available dates and
times.

When the five-year, intensive removal effort was completed in 2005, it was anticipated that
subsequent maintenance efforts would be able to keep up with annual debris accumulation.
However, a recent study has found annual accumulation rates to be higher than originally
estimated. The first year of maintenance mode resulted in 19 metric tons removed from the
NWHI, while the annual accumulation rate is over 52 metric tons. How to address this gap
remains a challenge.

A key challenge is addressing the sources of marine debris. In the Hawaiian archipelago, the
largest percentage of derelict fishing gear comes from non-local sources, an international issue
that concerns many Pacific Rim countries. Net identification is also problematic as nets can be
manufactured in one country, but then change hands many times in different fisheries and in
different countries. Time, space, and significant manpower would be required to untangle and
sort the nets even if a “fingerprint” for the net source was available.

g. Future Directions

Future marine debris efforts among all partners involved will likely focus on debris removal in
high density accumulation areas, removal of land-based debris, targeted research projects
including invasive species studies and oceanographic circulation studies (with satellite tracked
buoys), and development of at-sea debris detection and mitigation technologies.



III-4-9

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The Marine Debris Program is addressing international cooperation to reduce marine debris
through interagency committees, and Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument is
funding field tests of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to find derelict fishing gear in the
convergence zone (an area anticipated to contain a large density of debris) north of the Hawaiian
archipelago. If successful, the use of UAVs will help direct targeted removal operations to find
and remove debris at sea before it reaches coral reef ecosystems.


Subcategory: Reduce Land-Based Sources of Pollution

a. Introduction to Subcategory

Several federal agencies, including the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, manage land-based sources of pollution as one of their key missions.
Conversely, NOAA has a relatively minor role in the management of coastal pollution.
Accordingly, the CRCP has sought to develop a niche role in addressing this threat by providing
expertise, guidance, training, and funding to existing coastal resource and coral management
programs that currently lack the resources and technical proficiency to adequately address land-
based sources of pollution (LBSP). The focus of NOAA’s support is on building local capacity to
address and effectively manage impacts to the reef ecosystem through assistance with planning
and training in protection practices. States and Territories have played an essential role in
developing Local Action Strategies (LAS) which bring together existing Federal, state and local
programs for LBSP within their jurisdictions. States and territories have used CRCP grant
funding to conduct watershed assessments, mapping, demonstration projects, and outreach, and
to develop tools to assess the impacts of LBSP. In the process, they have leveraged just over
$10M for activities at the jurisdictional level.
NOAA scientists provide assistance through studies to measure pollutants and contaminants and
establish linkages to coral degradation. Activities in this subcategory are often closely related to
or overlapping with those addressing coral disease because pollutants can act independently or in
synergy with other environmental stressors to make coral reef organisms more susceptible to
disease. This section provides a summary of both internal NOAA projects and external grant
projects (funded through the Coral Reef Conservation Grant Program and the NFWF Coral
Fund).
Between 2002 and 2006, the CRCP provided $3.0M to support 80 projects in this subcategory.
This subcategory accounted for 18% of funding within the Reduce Impacts of Pollution and
Coral Disease category and 2% of overall CRCP funding; and 63% of projects in the category
and 6% of overall CRCP projects between 2002 and 2006 (see Exhibit III-4-1). Regionally, 60%
of the LBSP budget went to Pacific activities, 38% to the Atlantic, 2% to International activities,


III-4-10

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