Second Language Acquisition Stages and Related Linguistic Patterns

Appendix D
Second Language Acquisition Stages and Related Linguistic Patterns
Individuals learning a second language use the same innate processes that are used to acquire
their first language from the first days of exposure to the new language in spite of their age. They
reach similar developmental stages to those in first language acquisition, making some of the
same types of errors in grammatical markers that young children make, picking up chunks of
language without knowing precisely what each word means, and relying on sources of input-
humans who speak that language-to provide modified speech that they can at least partially
comprehend (Collier, 1998). The rate at which learners reach each stage varies with each
individual student since exposure and opportunity to use the language varies from individual to
individual. Similarly, the sequence of acquisition of specific structures of English varies from
student to student.

The process is not linear: It is more like a zigzag process (i.e. regular past tense, the morpheme
“ed” in its written form, pronounced three different ways). Mastery occurs gradually over time
until the student gets the morpheme right in more and more contexts until finally the subtleties of
the use of the particular structure (e.g. exceptions, spelling variations, pronunciation contexts)
has become a subconscious part of the learner’s language system. Additional example
(acquisition of the third person singular present tense, adding “s” to the verbs). This morpheme
becomes part of the subconscious acquired system after several years of exposure to standard
English. Formal teaching does not speed up the developmental process. However, a high CALP
level in the native language facilitates the learning of a second language. Acquisition occurs
through exposure to correct use of the structure over time in many different linguistic contexts
that are meaningful to the student.

The Second Language Acquisition Stages and Recommended Interventions

Roseberry-McKibbin (2002) lists common language characteristics observed in second language
learners and provides suggested interventions matched to language acquisition stages (see table
15.1 on the following page). Definitions and discussion of terms used in the following table are
provided below:

Interference

Interference is the process in which a communicative behavior for the first language influences
the second language. Students tend to demonstrate interference when using English in formal
settings, i.e., in a testing situation, rather than playing on the playground.

Practitioners are recommended to consider the possibility that second language learners’ errors in
English may result from language interference or from limited English experience. An
illustration of interference would be when children literally translate phrases from their native
language to English i.e., the Spanish form for “Have a seat” is “Toma asiento”, when translated
literally, second language learners may say, “Take a seat”. In such situations, the second
language learner’s language use difference is due to language interference.
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Table 15.1
MATCHING INTERVENTION TO SECOND LANGUAGE (L2) ACQUISITION STAGES
Stage 1
Stage II
Stage III
Stage IV
Preproduction
Early Production
Speech Emergence
Intermediate Fluency
(First 3 months of L2 Exposure)
(3-6 months)
(6 months–2 years)
(2-3 years)
STUDENT



CHARACTERISTICS



• Silent period
• focusing on comprehension
• Increased comprehension
• Improved comprehension
• Focusing on comprehension
• Using 1-3 word phrases
• Using simple sentences
• Adequate face-to-face
• May be using routines/
• Expanding vocabulary
conversational proficiency
formulas (e.g. “gimme five”)
• Continued grammatical errors • More extensive vocabulary

• Few grammatical errors
GOALS:



ORAL RESPONSES



• Yes-no responses in English
• 1-3 word responses
• Recalling
• Predicting
• One-word answers
• Naming/labeling items
• Telling/retelling
• Narrating
• Choral responses
• Describing/explaining
• Describing/explaining
• Answering questions:
• Comparing
• Summarizing
either/or, who/what/where,
• Sequencing
• Giving opinions
sentence completion
• Carrying on dialogues
• Debating/defending
GOALS:



VISUAL/WRITTEN RESPONSES



• Drawing/painting
• Drawing/painting, graphic
• Written Responses
• Creative writing (e.g., stories)
• Graphic designs
designs
• Drawing, painting, graphics
• Essays, summaries
• Copying
• Copying
• Drawing, painting, graphics
• Grouping and labeling
• Comprehensible written tests
• Simple Reus responses
GOALS:



PHYSICAL RESPONSES



• Pointing
• Pointing
• Demonstrating
• Demonstrating
• Circling, underlining
• Selecting
• Creating/constructing
• Creating/constructing
• Choosing among items
• Matching
• Role-playing/acting
• Role-playing
• Matching objects/pictures
• Construction
• Cooperative group tasks
• Cooperative group work
• Mime/acting out responses
• Videotaped presentations
Source: Hearne, D. (2000). Teaching Second Language Learners with Learning disabilities. Oceanside, CA: Academic Communication Associates. Adapted from Table 10-4 with permission.
Adapted from Roseberry-McKibbin, C. (2002) Multicultural Students with Special Language Needs: Practical Strategies for Assessment and Intervention. Oceanside, CA: Academic
Communication Associates, Inc.

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Special Education Assessment Process for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students
Interlanguage

Second language learners are usually observed developing a new language system that
incorporates elements from the native language and elements from English they recently learned.
Interlanguage actually helps second language learners test hypotheses about how language works
and develop their own set of rules for using language. As students master the English language,
their unique set of rules will resemble more the second language.

Silent Period

It is observed at the beginning of exposure to the new language. It may last from a couple of days
to several months). Fact: ESL beginners who listen but rarely speak in the new language make
just as much, and frequently more, progress in second language development as their more
talkative classmates, by the end of the first year of exposure to English.

Implications for instruction and assessment: Use sensitivity when developing systems for
nonverbal feedback in this early stage. Beginning adolescent and adult students may be more
influenced by cultural socialization norms or their own emotional feelings than by a predictable
silent period. An initial focus of intensive listening comprehension in the very beginning of
ESL instruction is beneficial for everyone.

Language shift

Language shift is a pattern of language use in which the relative prominence or use of the two
languages changes across time and generations. Language shift is usually reported across
generations and is characterized by a pattern whereby members of the immigrant populations are
fluent in their native language with limited skill in the host country’s language.

Language Loss

Language loss occurs when a child’s competence in the first language diminishes, while skills in
the second language are not at the same level of native speakers (Kayser, 1998). Language loss
occurs primarily in a context in which minimal support is given for the use and maintenance of
the L2. Thus, the sociolinguistic environment plays a critical role in the emergence of L1 loss
and language shift (Goldstein, 2004).

Language Loss vs. Language Shift

Language shift results in changes in native language use with an eventual erosion of abilities in
the language. L1 loss however, refers to a more rapid shift from first language prominence to
second language prominence (Goldstein, 2004). When it occurs in children, L1 loss can be
described as a language shift phenomenon that occurs within – rather than across generations.
In this context, L1 loss are patterns of L1 use in which there is a change toward earlier linguistic
forms. In other words, the child evidences reduction in linguistic skill relative to his/her skill at a
previous time. (Goldstein, 2004).

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Special Education Assessment Process for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students
Attrition

L1 attrition describes patterns of language use in which an individual does not lose ability in the
L1 but does not advance in it’s use either. L1 attrition co-occurs with L1 loss when demonstrated
skill with certain aspects of the language is reduced across time. Simultaneously, certain patterns
are also present in which characteristics of the language do not continue to develop as noted in
monolingual speakers of the target language (Goldstein, 2004).

Language Loss and Assessment

As clinicians working with children who are either bilingual or learning English as a second (or
other) language, the phenomena of language shift and L1 loss/attrition is of great relevance. This
is especially salient when working with Latino populations in the United States. Studies focusing
on the Spanish language skills of children in various Latino groups have reported a pattern of
reduction of expressive skills in Spanish over time.

When assessing children who may be in a language shift process and when assessing children
who are experiencing L1 loss, the main concern is differentiating between language difference
and language disability.

“Because some patterns that are observed in language shift/language loss situations may mimic
what has been noted in children with true learning disabilities, correctly diagnosing language
impairment in this population is not a trivial matter”(Goldstein, 2004, p. 203).

Bilingual Code Mixing

The use of phonological, lexical, morphosyntactic or pragmatic patterns from two languages in
the same utterance or stretch of conversation (Genesse, Paradis & Crago, 2004). Bilingual code
mixing plays several, important sociopragmatic functions, and it is a component of bilingual
people’s communicative competence. Genesse et al., 2004 present six bilingual Code Mixing
types and examples mainly observed in children:

1. Intrautterance mixing
“Alguien se murió en ese cuarto that he sleeps in.” (Someone died in that room)

2. Interutterance mixing
“Pa, ¿me vas a comprar un jugo? It cos’ 25 cents.” (Are you going to buy me juice?)

3. Words
“Estamos como marido y woman” (we are like man and …)

4. Phrase
“I’m going with her a la esquina” (…to the corner)

5. Clauses
“You know how to swim buy no te tapa.” (…it won’t be over your head)
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Special Education Assessment Process for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students

6. Pragmatic
“Donne moi le cheval; le cheval; the horse!” (Give me the horse, the horse; …)

Two bilingual Code Mixing types mainly observed in adults:


7. Grammar
“Yo have been able to enseñar Maria leer” (I … teach Maria to read.)

8. Flagging
“Hier, je suis allé au hardware store-how do you say hardware store in French?” (Yesterday,
I went to the …)

Use of First Language at Home:

When parents and children speak the language that they know best, they are working at their
level of cognitive maturity. Practicing English at home can actually slow down student’s
cognitive development. Parents can help their children grow cognitively by asking questions,
solving problems together, discovering new things, building or fixing something, going
somewhere together, cooking food, talking about a TV program, playing music; experiencing
life! (Collier, 1998).

CALP Levels and Relationship to Demands of Instruction

Adapted from the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey-Revised (2005)

Student will find the English/ Spanish
CALP
Level
language demands of instruction
6
Very Advanced/Muy Avanzado
Extremely Easy
5
Advanced/Avanzado
Very Easy
4-5 (4.5) Fluent to Advanced/Fluido a avanzado
Easy
4
Fluent/Fluido
Manageable
3-4 (3.5) Limited to Fluent/Limitado a fluido
Difficult
3
Limited/Limitado Very
Difficult
2
Very Limited/Muy limitado
Extremely Difficult
1
Negligible/Ímperceptible Impossible

Level 6-Very Advanced/Muy avanzado CALP
When compared with others of the same age or grade, an individual at level 6 demonstrates very
advanced cognitive-academic language proficiency. If provided with instruction at the subject’s
chronological age or corresponding grade level, it is expected that a student at level 6 will find
the language demands of the learning task extremely easy.

Level 5-Advanced/Avanzado CALP
When compared with others of the same age or grade, an individual at level 5 demonstrates
advanced cognitive-academic language proficiency. If provided with instruction at the subject’s
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Special Education Assessment Process for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students
chronological age or corresponding grade level, it is expected that a student at level 5 will find
the language demands of the learning task very easy.

Level 4-Fluent/Fluido CALP
When compared with others of the same age or grade, an individual at level 4 demonstrates
fluent cognitive-academic language proficiency. If provided with instruction at the subject’s
chronological age or corresponding grade level, it is expected that a student at level 4 will find
the language demands of the learning task manageable.

Level 3-Limited/Limitado CALP
When compared with others of the same age or grade, an individual at level 3 demonstrates
limited cognitive-academic language proficiency. If provided with instruction at the subject’s
chronological age or corresponding grade level, it is expected that a student at level 3 will find
the language demands of the learning task very difficult.

Level 2-Very Limited/Muy limitado CALP
When compared with others of the same age or grade, an individual at level 2 demonstrates very
limited cognitive-academic language proficiency. If provided with instruction at the subject’s
chronological age or corresponding grade level, it is expected that a student at level 2 will find
the language demands of the learning task extremely difficult.

Level 1-Negligible/Ímperceptible CALP
When compared with others of the same age or grade, an individual at level 1 demonstrates very
negligible cognitive-academic language proficiency. If provided with instruction at the subject’s
chronological age or corresponding grade level, it is expected that a student at level 1 will find
the language demands of the learning task impossible to manage.


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