SOUTH AFRICA

SOUTH AFRICA

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SOUTH AFRICA

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SOUTH AFRICA
1. GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1. General Overview
The Republic of South Africa occupies the southernmost part of the African continent (see
Figure 1), stretching latitudinally from 22° to 35° S and longitudinally from 17° to 33° E. Its surface
area is 1 219 090 km². It has common boundaries with the republics of Namibia, Botswana and
Zimbabwe, while the Republic of Mozambique and the Kingdom of Swaziland lie to the northeast
(Figure 2). Completely enclosed by South African territory in the southeast is the mountain Kingdom
of Lesotho.



FIG. 1. African Continent

To the west, south and east, South Africa borders on the Atlantic and southern Indian oceans.
Isolated, 1 920 km southeast of Cape Town in the Atlantic, lie Prince Edward and Marion islands,
which became part of South Africa in 1947.

South Africa has a lengthy coastline of about 3 000 km. This coastline is swept by two major
ocean currents – the warm south-flowing Mozambique-Agulhas current and the cold Benguela. The
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former skirts the east and south coasts as far as Cape Agulhas while the Benguela current flows
northwards along the west coast as far as southern Angola. The contrast in temperature between these
two currents partly accounts for important differences in climate and vegetation between the east and
west coasts of South Africa. It also causes big differences in marine life, the cold waters of the west
coast being much richer in oxygen, nitrates, phosphates and plankton than those of the east coast.

FIG. 2. Map of South Africa

The coastline itself is an even, closed one with few bays or indentations naturally suitable for
harbors. Most river mouths are unsuitable for use as harbours because large sand banks block the entry
for most of the year. Only the largest rivers, such as the Orange and Limpopo, maintain narrow
permanent channels through the banks. For much the same reasons, the country has no navigable
rivers.

The surface area of South Africa falls into two major physiographic features: the interior
plateau, and the land between the plateau and the coast. Forming the boundary between these two
areas is the Great Escarpment, the most prominent and continuous relief feature of the country. Its
height above sea level varies from approximately 1 500 m in the southwest to a height of 3 482 m in
the KwaZulu Natal Drakensberg in the east.
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Inland from the Escarpment lies the interior plateau, which is the southern continuation of the
great African plateau stretching north to the Sahara Desert. The plateau itself is characterized by wide
plains with an average height of 1 200 m above sea level. Surmounting the plateau in places are a
number of well-defined upland blocks. The dissected Lesotho plateau, which is more than 3 000 m
above sea level, is the most prominent. In general, the Escarpment forms the highest parts of the
plateau. Between the Great Escarpment and the coast lies an area which varies in width from 80 to 240
km in the east and south to a mere 60 to 80 km in the west. At least three major subdivisions can be
recognized: the eastern plateau slopes, the Cape folded belt and adjacent regions, and the western
plateau slopes.

The subtropical location, on either side of 30° S, accounts for the warm temperate conditions so
typical of South Africa. The country also falls squarely within the subtropical belt of high pressure,
making it dry, with an abundance of sunshine. The wide expanses of ocean on three sides of South
Africa have a moderating influence on its climate. More apparent, however, are the effects of the
warm Agulhas and cold Benguela currents along the east and west coasts respectively. While Durban
(east coast) and Port Nolloth (west coast) lie more or less on the same latitude, there is a difference of
at least 6ºC in their mean annual temperatures. Gale-force winds are frequent on the coasts, especially
in the south-western and southern coastal areas.

South Africa has an average annual rainfall of 464 mm, compared with a world average of 860
mm. About 20% of the country has a total annual rainfall of less than 200 mm, 48% between 200 and
600 mm, while only about 30% records more than 600 mm. In total, 65% of the country has an annual
rainfall of less than 500 mm – usually regarded as the absolute minimum for successful dry-land
farming. In Cape Town, the capital city of the Western Cape province, the average rainfall is highest
in the winter months, while in the capital cities of the other eight provinces, the average rainfall is
highest during summer. South Africa’s rainfall is unreliable and unpredictable. Large fluctuations in
the average annual figure are the rule rather than the exception in most areas of the country. Years
where a below-average figure is recorded are more common than years with an above-average total.
South Africa is periodically afflicted by drastic and prolonged droughts, which often end in severe
floods.

Temperature conditions in South Africa are characterized by three main features. Firstly,
temperatures tend to be lower than in other regions at similar latitudes, for example North Africa and
Australia. This is due primarily to the greater elevation above sea level of the subcontinent. Secondly,
despite a latitudinal span of 13 degrees, average annual temperatures are remarkably uniform
throughout the country. Owing to the increase in the height of the plateau towards the north-east, there
is hardly any increase in temperature from south to north as might be expected. The third feature is the
striking contrast between temperatures on the east and west coasts. Temperatures above 32ºC are fairly
common in summer, and frequently exceed 38ºC in the lower Orange River valley and the
Mpumalanga Lowveld.

Frost often occurs on the interior plateau during cold, clear winter nights, with ice forming on
still pools and in water pipes. The frost season is longest (from April to October) over the eastern and
southern plateau areas bordering on the Escarpment. Frost decreases to the north, while the coast is
virtually frost-free. Average annual relative humidity readings show that, in general, the air is driest
over the western interior and over the plateau. Along the coast, the humidity is much higher and at
times may rise to 85%. Low stratus clouds and fog frequently occur over the cool west coast,
particularly during summer. The only other area that commonly experiences fog is the ‘mist belt’
along the eastern foothills of the Escarpment.

The capital of South Africa is Pretoria, however, Cape Town is the legislative center and
Bloemfontein the judicial center. South Africa has 9 provinces: Eastern Cape, Free State, Gauteng,
KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, North-West, Northern Cape, Northern Province and Western Cape
(Figure 3).
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FIG. 3. South African Provinces

According to Census ’96 figures, there were 40.58 million people in South Africa. Estimates by
Statistics South Africa are that the country’s mid-1999 population stood at 43.054 million, of which
women constituted some 22 million. It thus has a low average population density in the order of 330 to
350 persons per thousand hectares. However the population density varies extensively between rural
and urban areas. The population is increasing at a rate of 2.3% per annum though with a decreasing
rate (Table 1). The predicted population growth rate from 2000 to 2010 is estimated to be 39.1%.

TABLE 1. POPULATION INFORMATION








Growth








rate (%)








1980


1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2001 To








2001









Population (millions)

17.4
22.7
29.1
36.4
43.3 43.8
2.0
Population density (inhabitants/km²)
14.2
18.6
23.8
29.8
35.5 35.9


















Predicted population growth rate (%) 2001 to 2010
3.0



Area (1000 km²)



1221.0



Urban population in 2001 as percent of total





Source: IAEA Energy and Economic Database.
.
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South Africa is a country with a dual socio-economic composition - a large industrial base with
a good infra structure (the best in Africa), but with a large third world component. For instance, South
Africa is a large electricity producer but one-third of its population still does not have access to
electricity.

The country has gone through a major political change since 1994, during which the policy of
apartheid was replaced by a democratic form of government. After a long, bumpy negotiation process,
marked by much opportunistic violence from the right wing and its surrogates and in some instances
sanctioned by elements of the State, South Africa held its first democratic election in April 1994 under
an Interim Constitution.

The African National Congress (ANC) led Government embarked on a programme to promote
the reconstruction and development of the country and its institutions. This called for the simultaneous
pursuit of democratisation and socio-economic change, as well as reconciliation and the building of a
consensus founded on commitment to improving the lives of all South Africans, in particular the poor.

Converting democratic ideals into practice required, amongst other things, initiating a radical
overhaul of the machinery of the government at every level, towards service delivery, openness and a
culture of human rights.

1.2. Economic Indicators
South Africa’s is classed as a developing country. Its economy with a GNP per capita of 18,203
Rand (US$ 3,034 at 6 Rand/US$) in 1999, is placed in the upper middle-income bracket for
developing countries (Table 2). For a developing country in Africa, it is highly industrialized with
industry contributing 39.3% to total Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The economy includes a modern
financial and industrial sector, supported by a well-developed infrastructure, operating alongside a
subsistence informal sector.

TABLE 2. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)








Growth








rate (%)








1980



1970
1980
1990
2000
2001
To








2001
GDP (millions of current US$)

80,544
112,014
126,764
122,959
2.0
GDP (millions of constant 1990 US$)

65,934
98,587
112,014
131,254
133,742
1
GDP per capita (current US$/capita)

2,771
3,079
2,927
2,808
0.1
Source: IAEA Energy and Economic Database.

The agricultural sector contributes only 4% of the gross domestic product (GDP). The mining
sector played an important role in the development of the South African economy, but its importance
has declined in the last decade and currently accounts for about 6% of GDP. The manufacturing sector
accounts for approximately one-fifth of South Africa’s GDP. The contribution of financial services
and business increased from about 12% to nearly 18% during the nineties and given the high level of
banking and commercial activities in South Africa, this share is expected to expand even further.
Tourism activity is also expanding its relative size and further increases in the contribution of the
tertiary sector to GDP are expected.

The economic growth rate during the worst years of the apartheid era was running at 3.3% per
annum (GNP) and 1.3% per annum (Gross Domestic Product (GDP)) (1980 to 1991). By the second
half of 1999, real gross domestic production was growing from quarter to quarter at annualized rates
of more than 3%. Real GDP is expected to grow by about 3.5% on average in the next three years.
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1.3. Energy Situation
The country has very large coal deposits, small hydro potential and very small deposits of
Gas (exploration for natural gas off the South African west coast is underway – indications of
the presence of natural gas have not yet been quantified) . South Africa has large uranium deposits
associated with its gold-bearing ores (Table 3). Hence South Africa’s indigenous energy resource base
is dominated by coal.

TABLE 3. ESTIMATED ENERGY RESERVES

Estimated energy reserves in 1999

(Exajoule)








Solid Liquid
Gas
Uranium Hydro Total




(1) (2)







Total amount in place
1181.05
0.29
0.68
159.87
7.04 1348.94







(1) This total represents essentially recoverable reserves.




(2) For comparison purposes a rough attempt is made to convert hydro capacity to energy by multiplying
the gross theoretical annual capability (World Energy Council - 2002) by a factor of 10.

Source: IAEA Energy and Economic Database.

Coal
Many of the coal deposits can be exploited at extremely favorable costs and results in 91% of
primary energy being based on coal. The country ranks as the world’s fifth largest coal producer. In
addition to the extensive use of coal in the domestic economy, large amounts are exported, South
Africa being the second-largest exporter of steam coal. South African coal for local electricity
production is among the cheapest in the world. The beneficiation of coal, particularly for export,
results in more than 60 Mt of discards being produced annually. Thirty per cent of raw coal mined for
the export market and between 15% and 25% of the raw coal mined for local demand (excluding
power-station coal) is not marketable and therefore discarded.

Gas and oil
Apart from limited gas and oil reserves in the Mossel Bay area (southern coastal area), South
Africa does not have significant commercially exploitable gas or crude oil reserves. Most petroleum
must therefore be imported. During the period, when world sanctions were applied because of the
country's' apartheid policies, the Government undertook the construction of a vast oil-from-coal
facility (Sasol) and a smaller oil-from-gas facility (Mossgas). At peak production these two facilities
produced 30% and 10% respectively of local oil.

Biomass
Fuel wood, which comes mainly from natural woodlands, is the primary source of energy used
by households in most rural areas for the purposes of cooking and heating. In some areas this is
already almost completely depleted and in others it is under heavy pressure. The total annual
sustainable supply of wood from natural woodlands in communal rural areas is estimated at about 12
Mt. However, probably no more than half of it is usable as fuel wood. In addition to these sources,
residues from commercial forestry total about 4.2 Mt per year. Much of this, as well as wood from
bush clearing on commercial farmland, is being used increasingly as fuel. To be effective, planning for
a sustainable fuel wood supply thus requires decentralization, understanding of local conditions and
flexibility. Supply-side interventions focus on satisfying a range of local needs and the realization that
community forestry does not involve only the planting of trees and that community participation is
central to all activities. Planning must ensure their integration into broader rural development, land
use, natural resources management, and agricultural and energy planning. Interventions should build
on the best indigenous practices identified.
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Renewables
Renewable energy sources, other than biomass, have not yet been exploited to the full in South
Africa, but there are a number of initiatives to expand their use.

Solar
Most areas in South Africa average more than 2 500 hours of sunshine per year, and average
daily solar radiation levels range between 4,5 and 6,5 kWh/m². The country’s solar equipment industry
is developing. Annual photovoltaic (PV) panel assembly capacity totals 4 MW, and a number of
companies in South Africa manufacture solar water-heaters. In February 1999, former President
Nelson Mandela launched the world’s largest solar-powered rural electrification project in Bipha in
the Eastern Cape. The Eskom-Shell Solar Rural Electrification Project will eventually provide 50 000
solar home systems, while 16 000 schools and 2 000 clinics will benefit. The project will cost some
R150 million. The use of solar power for water pumping is increasing rapidly through the rural water
provision and sanitation programme of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. Solar water
heating is already being used to a certain extent. Current capacity installed: domestic 330 000 m² and
swimming pools 327 000 m² (middle to high income); commerce and industry 45 000 m²; agriculture
4 000 m². Improved thermal efficiency of housing stock through solar passive design techniques has
been introduced in the national housing programme and is aimed at ameliorating the high levels of
indoor air pollution resulting from the extensive use of coal for heating in winter. Eskom is currently
performing a pre-feasibility study for a large (50 – 100 MW) solar thermal plant in the Northern Cape.
An environmental impact study may commence in early 2003.

Wind
Wind power potential is generally good along the entire coast, with mean annual speeds greater
than 4 m/s, and there are localized areas where speeds exceed 6 m/s. These latter areas are potentially
attractive as wind power sites, and Eskom and an independent company (DARLIPP) are respectively
investigating the use of wind power for large-scale electricity generation. Eskom has recently (August
2002) installed the first wind turbine (660 kW) in the Western Cape, and will be installing another two
before the end of 2002. The total output from these three turbines will be 3.2 MW, and will form the
basis of a 3-year research project to facilitate the optimum implementation of wind energy. The
DARLIPP company is likely to install a number of wind turbines (about 4-6 MW) in 2003, also in the
Western Cape. Wind power has been, and will continue to be used for water pumping, with about 300
000 windmills being used for watering livestock and supplying communities.

Hydro
South Africa can be classified as a generally dry country, and thus has very little perennial
hydropower potential. The current total installed large-scale hydropower generation capacity (larger
than 10 MW), including pumped storage schemes, is 2 222 MW. The installed capacity of plants
smaller than 10 MW totals some 65 MW.

The historical energy data are given in Table 4.
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TABLE 4. ENERGY STATISTICS(*)



Average
annual







growth rate (%)







1960
1980

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2001 To To







1980
2001









Energy consumption








- Total (1)
0.97
1.44
2.91
4.22
5.72
5.74
5.63
3.29
- Solids (2)
0.99
1.60
3.12
4.07
5.45
5.46
5.90
2.71
- Liquids

0.03
0.03
13.47
8.37
- Gases



0.07
0.07
0.07

- Primary electricity (3)


0.01
0.09
0.16
0.17
24.33
14.64
Energy production








- Total
0.99
1.60
3.02
4.22
5.77
5.87
5.73
3.22
- Solids
0.99
1.60
3.01
4.07
5.49
5.55
5.71
2.96
- Liquids




0.03
0.04

- Gases



0.07
0.09
0.11

- Primary electricity (3)


0.01
0.09
0.16
0.17
24.33
14.64
Net import (Import - Export)








- Total

- Solids

- Liquids

- Gases



















(1) Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import - Export) of secondary energy.


(2) Solid fuels include coal, lignite and commercial wood.






(3) Primary electricity = Hydro + Geothermal + Nuclear + Wind.





(*) Energy values are in Exajoule except where indicated.






Source: IAEA Energy and Economic Database.

1.4. Energy Policy
The White Paper on Energy Policy 1998 gives an overview of the South African energy sector’s
contribution to GDP, employment, taxes and the balance of payments. It concludes that the sector can
greatly contribute to a successful and sustainable national growth and development strategy. The
Energy Policy contains 5 key policy objectives, which form the foundation for South Africa’s energy
policy:

Increasing access to affordable energy services

•
Government will promote access to affordable energy services for disadvantaged households,
small businesses, small farms and community services.

Improving energy governance

•
Governance of the energy sector will be improved. The relative roles and functions of the
various energy governance institutions will be clarified, the operation of these institutions will
become more accountable and transparent, and their membership will become more
representative, particularly in terms of participation by blacks and women.
•
Stakeholders will be consulted in the formulation and implementation of new energy policies, in
order to ensure that policies are sympathetic to the needs of a wider range of stakeholder
communities.
•
Co-ordination between government departments, government policies, and the various spheres
of government will be improved in order to achieve greater integration in energy policy
formulation and implementation.
•
Government capacity will be strengthened in order to better formulate and implement energy
policies.
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Document Outline

• SOUTH AFRICA
  • 1. GENERAL INFORMATION
  • 2. ELECTRICITY SECTOR
  • 3. NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION
  • 4. NUCLEAR POWER INDUSTRY
  • 5. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
  • REFERENCES
  • Appendix

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