Sphere Humanitarian Standards for Shelter and Settlement Planning in Kenya’s Dadaab Refugee Camps

UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATIDate: 14-Aug-2008I, Mitchell Eugene Sipus,hereby submit this original work as part of the requirements for the degree of:Master of Community PlanninginCommunity PlanningIt is entitled:An Assessment of Sphere Humanitarian Standards for Shelter and Settlement Planning in Kenya's Dadaab Refugee CampsStudent Signature:Mitchell Eugene SipusThis work and its defense approved by:Committee Chair:Johanna Looye, PhDJohanna Looye, PhDDavid Edelman, PhDDavid Edelman, PhD11/16/2010 1,212Abstract This thesis examines the viability of Sphere Humanitarian Shelter Standards within the construction of Ifo II, a new refugee camp in the Dadaab refugee camps of northeastern Kenya in 2007. One of the largest refugee settlements in the world, the Dadaab camps contain over 300,000 refugees and have been in place since 1991. As the Sphere Standards have been designed for use within an emergency crisis, this thesis investigates their applicability in the protracted settlement of Dadaab by utilizing a recent shelter initiative as a case study. In 2007, the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) initiated a new housing and camp expansion project in Dadaab to accommodate future population growth and to overcome many of the problems of the earlier camps. Committed to sustainable solutions for displaced populations, the agency relied upon the Sphere Standards as a means to provide culturally, environmentally, and economically appropriate housing and infrastructure planning. To determine if Sphere Standards meet the needs of the refugee populations, three months of qualitative research were undertaken within the Dadaab camps in 2007, with additional follow-up research in 2009. Field research focused on the socioeconomic roles of informal housing consolidation strategies in the camps, pre-Sphere agency-provided housing, and the new NRC camp expansion. Field research revealed that Sphere does not provide the tools necessary to contend with the matured socioeconomic dynamics of a protracted settlement. By expanding the standards to include a stronger recognition of the conditions which frame the lives of those in protracted displacement such as national policies, regional conflict, and local market activity, Sphere will provide humanitarian agencies with the means to provide displaced populations with better shelter and settlement solutions. ii iii © Mitchell Sipus 2010iv Acknowledgements I would like to sincerely thank Dr. Johanna Looye for her constant guidance and dedication throughout the entire research and thesis development process. I also would like to thank Dr. Adrian Parr and Dr. David Edelman for their ongoing support during my graduate studies. I want to extend special thanks to the administration and staff of the Norwegian Refugee Council, CARE, and UNHCR for providing the necessary resources to conduct this research. Additional gratitude goes to Ana Lubinkovic of Essex University for helping get this project in motion. Lastly I thank all the volunteers and participants in Dadaab who contributed to the research process. v Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. vi List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables .........................................................................................................................ix Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 1. Refugee Camps ................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Refugee Shelter ................................................................................................................................................. 4 1.3 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 6 Chapter 2: The Sphere Humanitarian Charter ........................................................................ 8 2.1 The Basis of Sphere ...................................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 The Sphere Minimum Standards in Shelter and Settlement ....................................................... 9 2.2.1 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 1: Strategic Planning ........................................... 9 2.2.2 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 2: Physical Planning .......................................... 11 2.2.3 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 3: Covered Living Space .................................. 12 2.2.4 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 4: Design ................................................................ 13 2.2.5 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 5: Construction ................................................... 14 2.2.6 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 6: Environmental Impact ................................ 15 2.3 Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 16 Chapter 3: The Dadaab Refugee Camps of Kenya ............................................................... 18 3.1 Kenya Refugee Policy ................................................................................................................................... 18 3.2 The Dadaab Camps ........................................................................................................................................ 19 3.3 Chapter Summary: Kenya’s Dadaab Refugee Camps ....................................................................... 26 Chapter 4: Research Question and Methodology ................................................................ 29 4.1 Research Question ......................................................................................................................................... 29 4.2 Methodology ..................................................................................................................................................... 30 4.3 Research Process ............................................................................................................................................ 31 4.4. Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 34 Chapter 5: Research Findings .............................................................................................. 36 5.1. Refugee Housing Strategies ................................................................................................................... 36 5.1.1 Somali Urqaal ............................................................................................................................................... 37 5.1.2 Stick Frame .................................................................................................................................................... 38 5.1.3 Wattle and Daub .......................................................................................................................................... 40 5.1.4 Mud Brick ....................................................................................................................................................... 41 5.2 Refugee Property Use and Community Spaces ............................................................................... 43 5.2.1 Private Property Use ................................................................................................................................. 43 5.2.2 Community Spaces ..................................................................................................................................... 47 5.2.3 Water Pumps ................................................................................................................................................ 48 5.2.4 Religious Structures .................................................................................................................................. 48 5.2.5 Protected Blocks ......................................................................................................................................... 49 5.2.6 Markets ........................................................................................................................................................... 50 vi 5.3 The Informal Economy for Self Help Housing ................................................................................. 52 5.3.1 Natural Materials ........................................................................................................................................ 53 5.3.2 Man made materials .................................................................................................................................. 54 5.3.3 Skilled Labor and Housing Construction .......................................................................................... 56 5.3.4 Housing Cost ................................................................................................................................................. 57 5.4. Previous Housing Initiatives at Dadaab ............................................................................................ 58 5.4.1 The Protected Block at Ifo ....................................................................................................................... 59 5.4.2 Housing Vulnerable Populations .......................................................................................................... 61 5.5 The Norwegian Refugee Council Sphere Shelter Project ............................................................ 63 5.5.1 Overview of NRC Construction of Ifo II ............................................................................................. 64 5.5.2 NRC Shelter Project Field Assessment ............................................................................................... 65 5.5.3 Hired Labor ................................................................................................................................................... 67 5.5.4 Self Help Construction .............................................................................................................................. 69 5.6 Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 71 Chapter 6: Analysis .............................................................................................................. 74 6.1 Refugee Self-help Housing ....................................................................................................................... 74 6.1.1 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 3: Covered Living Space .................................. 75 6.1.2 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 4: Design ................................................................ 75 6.1.3 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 5: Construction ................................................... 76 6.1.4 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 6: Environmental Impact ................................ 76 6.2 Pre-Sphere Agency Housing Assistance within Ifo Protected Block ...................................... 77 6.2.1 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 1: Strategic Planning ......................................... 78 6.2.2 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 2: Physical Planning .......................................... 78 6.2.3 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 3: Covered Living Space .................................. 79 6.2.4 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 4: Design ................................................................ 80 6.2.5 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 5: Construction ................................................... 80 6.2.6 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 6: Environmental Impact ................................ 81 6.3 Sphere Housing Program by Norwegian Refugee Council ......................................................... 81 6.3.1 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 1: Strategic Planning ......................................... 82 6.3.2 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 2: Physical Planning .......................................... 82 6.3.3 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 3: Covered Living Space .................................. 83 6.3.4 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 4: Design ................................................................ 84 6.3.5 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 5: Construction ................................................... 85 6.3.6 Minimum Shelter and Settlement Standard 6: Environmental Impact ................................ 86 6.6 Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 87 Chapter 7: Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 90 7.1 Sphere Standards for Housing Assistance within Dadaab ............................................................ 90 7.2 NRC’s Use of Sphere Standards................................................................................................................. 90 7.3 Sphere Standards within Dadaab and Protracted Settlements ................................................... 93 7.4 Final Thoughts ................................................................................................................................................. 96 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 98 vii List of Figures Figure 3-1 Location of Dadaab .................................................................................................................... 20 Figure 3-2 Ifo Camp ......................................................................................................................................... 21 Figure 3-3 Hagadera Camp .......................................................................................................................... 22 Figure 3-4 Location of Dadaab .................................................................................................................... 23 Figure 5-1 Somali Urqaal ............................................................................................................................... 37 Figure 5-2 Stick Frame Housing ................................................................................................................. 39 Figure 5-3 Wattle and Daub Housing ....................................................................................................... 40 Figure 5-4 Sudanese Mud Brick House ................................................................................................... 41 Figure 5-5 Mud Brick Housing Foundations ......................................................................................... 42 Figure 5-6 Map of Refugee Housing Plot ................................................................................................ 44 Figure 5-7 Map of Refugee Housing Plot in Ifo Camp ....................................................................... 45 Figure 5-8 Map of Gambella Community ................................................................................................ 46 Figure 5-9 Distance between Protected Block to Agency Services ............................................. 50 Figure 5-10 Dagahaley Market ................................................................................................................... 51 Figure 5-11 Somali Refugee Women Hired to Repair Wattle and Daub Shelter ................... 52 Figure 5-12 Gambellan Laborers Hired to Construct a Mud Brick House n Ifo II ................ 56 Figure 5-13 Fenced Perimeter of Ifo Protected Block ...................................................................... 60 Figure 5-14 Pre-Sphere Agency Housing in Ifo Protected Block . ............................................... 61 Figure 5-15 Damaged Walls and Foundations in Ifo Protected Block ....................................... 63 Figure 5-16 Hired Gambellan Workers in Ifo II ................................................................................... 67 Figure 5-17 Refugees Carrying Water from Pumps to Housing Site .......................................... 69 viii List of Tables Table 1 Building Materials and Costs ..................................................................................................... 54 ix Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Refugee Camps Refugee camps are not an ideal solution to managing large-scale refugee flows. Yet host governments frequently construct camps as a means to mitigate the perceived socioeconomic threats of large-scale migration. Additionally, camps are often constructed by humanitarian agencies to distribute aid efficiently and to minimize associated risks, such as communicable diseases or social tensions. Although refugee status is a product of the 20th century,1 temporary camps are a longstanding technology for the management of displaced persons. The modern refugee camp has its origins within the mass displacement camps that immediately followed WWII, as a military solution to an international security crisis. While reconstructed states grappled with the aid and redistribution of millions of refugees, temporary settlements were converted from military prison camps (Malkki, 1995). Founded upon the same systems of physical planning and management as the WWII predecessors, modern refugee camps are also usually located within conflict zones, harsh environments, and adjacent to unstable international borders (Nyers, 2006). Signatory states of the 1951 United Nations Convention on the Status of Refugees are bound by international law to protect refugees from persecution by the country of origin. Some host governments establish refugee camps as a mechanism to provide protection while others choose 1 The 1951 United Convention on the Status of Refugees demands that a displaced person has protection from nonrefoulment, return to the country of persecution, upon legal recognition of refugee status. To acquire refugee status within the host country of asylum, the person must prove he has suffered individual persecution within his state due to religious belief, political affiliation, or as a member of a socially cognizable group. The 1951 Convention does not provide refugee protection due to general war or civil strife, although such protection can be acquired under the 1969 Refugee Convention by the Organization of the African Union. 1