Technology and Change Management

Technology and Change Management

Brenda Kearns
more for less and pressure from
School of Computing,
management
to
improve
their
Dublin Institute of Technology,
efficiency, reduce cost and improve
Kevin St., Dublin 8,
quality (Collerette et. al, 2002). The
Ireland.
implementation of new technology is
Mailto: Brenda.Kearns@comp.dit.ie
often central to achieving these goals.

Legacy systems can become inefficient
Abstract
and too costly to maintain as compared

with modern technological solutions
The only thing that remains constant in
(Bergey et al, 1999). The advent of
today’s business environment is change.
Pressures
to
secure
competitive
new technology requires both new
advantage coupled with new technology
technological skills and knowledge
can be problematic unless effectively
(Heiss and Jankowsky, 2001). The
managed. This paper discusses the
typical reaction to new technology is
reasons for validating change and why
fear, anxiety and uncertainty in the
change is vital to the success of an
organisation. Resistance to change is
form of resistance to the change
shown to be the greatest obstacle to
(Trader-Leigh, 2002). Resistance to
change. The paper illustrates how models
change is accepted as a natural
such as the ADKAR and the Diffusion of
reaction. It is however is cited as one
Innovations can be used to explain users’
of
the
major
obstacles
facing
reactions.
In
order
to
implement
technological change successfully within
organisations
when
trying
to
organisations, the proposed users must
implement change (Prosci, 2002).
see the benefit of the proposed system
Employees fear and resist change for a
and the inadequacies of the current
variety of reasons, fear of redundancy,
system.
The
paper
discusses
the
fear of extra work and others which are
technology
acceptance
model
and
proposes that the use of effective change
detailed in section 3.2 (Trader-Leigh,
management techniques can increase
2002). It was found that management
users’ attitude towards using the proposed
who rationalise away such concerns
system. Communication was found to be
generate an instinctual protective
fundamental to successfully achieving this.
reaction
(Born,
1995).
Change

Keywords: Change, management,
management helps to guard against
technology acceptance, AKDAR, business
over
simplification
of
employee
process remodelling, resistance
concerns. Change management is the
process, tools and techniques to
1 Introduction
effectively manage people and the
In
today’s
turbulent
business
associated human resource issues that
environment, the only thing that
surface when implementing change
appears to remain constant is change.
(Prosci, 2002).
Social, economic, competitive and

technical
pressures
are
forcing
Research carried out by Fred Davis
organisations to rethink and reengineer
delivered the Technology Acceptance
the way they provide their service
Model; a tool that aims to isolate
(Collerette et. al, 2002). These
factors
which
most
affect
the
pressures can originate from internal
integration of new technology in an
and external sources; pressure from
organisation and is used to predict user
competitors and customers to provide
acceptance of technological systems
and applications. This paper focuses on
____________________________________________________________________

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Technology and Change Management - Brenda Kearns
reengineering the TAM to account for
Externally driven change generally
change and proposes that using
originates from customer demands,
effective change management on the
arising from requirements for a better
external variables that influence a
service (Paulk, 1999). In the public
user’s perception of a system can
sector, new government initiatives and
increase the level of acceptance. The
legislative changes together with
author proposes that lessons learned
continuing pressures on resources are
from the top ten reasons for BPR
forcing public sector bodies to consider
failure
coupled
with
ITIL
(IT
radical change as a way of life (ITIL,
Infrastructural Library) best practices
1999). The basic goal is the same, to
provide a good change management
make fundamental changes in how
framework. The top ten reasons for
business is conducted in order to cope
BPR failure are described in section
with a more challenging market
3.3 and can be used as lessons learned
(Kotter, 1995).
and as such, act as inputs to the change
management process. The culture,
2.1 Drivers of Change
pressures and reasons for change differ
Organisational change is generally
from one organisation to another
related to Information Technology
(Kotter, 1995). This paper aims to
(ITIL, 1999) and can take many forms,
highlight
mistakes
made
by
changes may occur in for example:
organisations and suggest methods and
Service
delivery
–
the
best practices to avoid repeating them.
development of new types of

services to customers including
This paper is of interest to managers
those
based
on
new
facing organisation or technological
technologies
and
change. It aims to offer guidance and
communications facilities, this
advice on models and methods that are
might be an organisations
available to help manage the change
response to changing customer
process.
needs and market trends; the

business need to compete on
the
same
level
as
its
2 The Need for Change
competitors (BS1400-2, 2003)
Management
Business
processes
–
reengineering
a
business
Successful organisations do not stand
process to use new technology
still (ITIL, 1999). Changes in the
for financial gain (Hammer,
business environment, advances in
1990), this might be classified
technology, changing expectations of
as a “push” change factor if the
staff are only a few of the pressures
organisation is reacting to its
which force continuing change in an
competitors and wants to gain
organisation (ITIL, 1999). There are
competitive advantage.
many possible starting points for a
People systems – changes in
change programme. Change can be
roles,
responsibilities
and
internally driven or externally driven.
working
relationships;
Paulk (1999) refers to these as “push”
requirements
for
retraining
and “pull” change factors respectively.
based on new technologies.
Internally driven change is initiated
Structures and facilities –
when the organisation develops a new
establishment
of
new
process or technology and “pushes” it
organisations,
agencies
and
into use to gain competitive advantage.
partnerships to facilitate the


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Technology and Change Management - Brenda Kearns
development and delivery of IT

facilities. This type of change
A workers strike can be due to pressure
might be an organisations
from employees for better pay or
response to changing customer
working conditions. Examining the
needs
model, it can be shown that this change
Technologies
–
the
in the HR Development area can exert
implementation of new IT
change on all other areas – Efficiency
infrastructures
to
support
and Productivity, Preservation and
internal
and
external
stability and Innovation Growth and
communications
and
change. In the case of a workers strike,
information
sharing
for
productivity and efficiency will drop,
competitive
advantage.
this will have an effect on the stability
Technological change can be
and preservation of the company as the
driven both internally and
service that is usually provided by the
externally.
Heiss
and
striking sector is no longer available.
Jankowsky (2001) point out

however that establishing or
reengineering processes to link
technology
resources
and
company objectives is a major
challenge
(Heiss
and
Jankowsky, 2001).

Effecting
any
change
in
the
organisation
can
be
problematic
(Morton, 1992). Figure 2.1 illustrates
the drivers and pressures for change

and stability. This model is used as a
Figure 2.1 Drivers for Stability and Change
(ITIL, 1999)
basis for identifying the likely impacts

of changes (ITIL, 1999).
Looking at the example of a workers

strike again, it is often the case that
The model in Figure 2.1 shows that the
workers go on strike because of the
drivers for change and stability can be
introduction of new technology to an
divided into four distinct areas
organisation. The Irish postal service
1. Human Resource Development
recently invested more than  ¢¡¤£¥£
2. Efficiency and Productivity
million in new mail sorting systems in
3. Preservation and Stability
an effort to improve the postal service
4. Innovation Growth and change
and reduce overheads. Resistance to

this change resulted in a two week
Drivers for change and stability in the
postal strike and the suspension of nine
HR Development area can include
postal van drivers (An Post, 2004). The
pressure from empowerment of staff
effects of this type of change arise
for career development, better working
from the Productivity and Efficiency
conditions or increased pay. Pressure
area. The organisation needs to be able
from the management to maintain
to:
morale and cohesion yet motivate and
respond
to
pressures
on
develop staff. The model in Figure 2.1
resources
illustrates that the four areas exert
improve
the
organisations
pressure for change and stability both
performance
directly and indirectly on each other.
increase productivity


3

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Technology and Change Management - Brenda Kearns
increase
quality
and
destabilise the whole change effort
efficiencies
while
lowering
(Morton, 1991).
costs


The management of change is a
In the case of An Post, they introduced
complex undertaking; the complexity
new
technology
to
address
the
arises from the systematic or ‘holistic’
Productivity and Efficiency need of the
nature of organisational change. As
organisation. The introduction of new
soon as the organisation moves beyond
technology comes under the area of
very simple changes, it needs to take
Innovation, Growth and Change, i.e.
account of a variety of inter-related
the drivers and pressures of an
factors
which
can
make
the
organisation to adapt, reshape and
management of change a complex
respond to pressures from customers
requirement (ITIL, 1999). The MIT90s
for
improved
service
delivery.
framework illustrates this complexity.
Introducing new technology without
This
framework
represents
the
use of proper change management
complexity as a set of five forces in
practices can cause instability in the
dynamic
equilibrium
perpetually
organisation. Applying the theory of
striving for stability (Morton, 1991).
the model in Figure 2.1 to the

problems experienced by An Post
shows that the organisation needed to
increase productivity and efficiency
which
resulted
in
pressure
for
Innovation, Growth and change. The
introduction of the new sorting system
exerted
change
on
the
HR
Development area. The postal workers
resisted the change and exerted
pressure on the organisation in the
form of a strike for the preservation of
the status quo. Pressures arising from
the HR Development area resulted in a
decrease in the Productivity and
Efficiency.


Figure 2.2 MIT90's Framework (Scott
The model depicted in Figure 2.1
Morton, 1991)
echoes the findings of Scott Morton’s

MIT90’s framework (Morton, 1991)
Strategy – the high-level goals
illustrated
in
Figure
2.2
which
and business objectives of the
demonstrates that organisations are
organisation
complex systems of people, structures,
Structure – the functions of the
technology, culture, processes and
organisation, the way in which
management
operating
in
an
they are grouped and structured
environment which is itself complex
in order to meet the business
and constantly changing. The MIT90’s
objectives
framework reinforces the theory that a
Management processes – the
change in any one of these elements
management
policies,
can have repercussions elsewhere, and
procedures, information flows
the unintended consequences of even
and facilities for business
minor changes can, in the worst case,


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Technology and Change Management - Brenda Kearns
planning and the exercise of
3 Technology and Change
control in the organisation.
Management
Individuals and roles – the roles
and activities of individual
Technological change is taking place
members of the organisation,
all around us (Hammer, 1990; Kotter,
their skills and motivation and
1995; Davis, 1989) from major
the tools they use to accomplish
technological change such as the
their assigned tasks
development
of
complex
robots
Technology – the technologies
capable of exploring far reaching
used by the organisation, in
planets of our solar system to minor
particular
the
information
changes in administrative procedures
Technologies supporting the
at work (ITIL, 1999). The rate of
business processes.
change of technology means that the
Morton’s framework identifies that an
technology used by any organisation is
organisation is also subjected to
in a constant state of flux (Buchanan,
influences
from
its
external
and Huczynski, 1985); each generation
environment to which it must respond.
of
business
application
and
IT
Both the internal forces in the
infrastructure is superseded by the next
organisation
and
the
external
wave of developments (ITIL, 1999).
environment change through time and
Advances in technology bring potential
the changes in any one area will have
benefits and risks, which are not
implications for the other areas
always easy to predict (UNDP, 2001).
(Morton, 1991). The complexity and
In 1973, the US Defence Advanced
interrelatedness
of
these
areas
Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
highlight the need for dedicated
initiated a
research program to
management of the change process, if
investigate
techniques
and
nobody is responsible for ensuring that
technologies for interlinking packet
an intended change takes place, the
networks. This project became known
change effort will not reach fulfilment
as the “Internetting Project” (ISOC,
(ITIL, 2000). IT implementation
2001).
projects are frequent in companies but

experience shows that they involve
In 1973, the advantages of the Internet
significant
change
management
as we know it today were unknown. It
problems and often entail losses which
has since brought us advantages such
amount to some 100 billion dollars per
as global purchasing power at our
year (Lientz and Rea, 1998).
desktop,
an
“information
super-

highway”, a valuable research tool.
The models, The Drivers for Change
Being
unable
to
foresee
the
and Stability and The MIT90’s
advantages, it was impossible to
Framework depicted in Figures 2.1 and
foresee the disadvantages, for example,
2.2 respectively, both demonstrate the
accessibility and dissemination of
complexity of implementing change on
illegal pornographic images, exposure
any area. The MIT90’s framework
to dangerous and illegal information
posits that the drivers and pressures are
facilitating international crime and
always ongoing. Section 3 will focus
supporting drug trade networks, and a
on the need for change management
continued battle against software
when implementing new technological
viruses and cyber attacks. These are
solutions and discuss the people issues
just some examples of the unforeseen
encountered during this type of
directions that technology can take us.
change.



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Technology and Change Management - Brenda Kearns
Today’s technological transformations
productivity and in order to facilitate
are intertwined with globalisation, and
these needs and requirements, adapting
together they have created, the network
to technological change is a must
age (UNDP, 2001). The network age
(Kotter, 1996). In order to adapt and
had brought with it new opportunities
grow
with
advancements
in
and increased social and economic
technology, the proposed solutions
rewards from creating and using
must be accepted and adopted. Section
technology.
Technology
is
not
2.1 will discuss methods that can help
inherently good or bad, however, the
organisations gauge the adoption and
value of technology depends on how it
of proposed new technology.
is used (UNDP, 2001). It is in any
organisations best interest to adapt and
3.1 Accepting Technology
grow
with
technological
change,
Figure 3.1 shows the Technology
however, the rate of change of
Acceptance
Model
(TAM),
first
technology is not going to slow down
introduced by Fred D. Davis in 1986 as
anytime soon (Kotter, 1996) and as
part of his doctorial dissertation
such needs to be managed. The
(Davis, 1989). The TAM aims to
strategic management of technology
isolate factors which most affect the
involves the top team in making a
integration of new technology into an
commitment to certain goals, analysing
organization and is used to predict,
the organisations performance in
explain and increase user acceptance of
relation to its technologies and future
technological systems and applications
prospects and producing a vision and a
and to understand why end-users can
mission statement (Anderson et al.,
reject the use of new technological
1997). There is constant pressure for
solutions. The TAM focuses on two
organisations are forever being pushed
major characteristics of a system or
to reduce costs, improve the quality of
software application
products and services, locate new

opportunities for growth and increase


Figure 3.1 The Technology Acceptance Model, (Davis, 1989)




6

---

i.
Perceived Ease of Use (EOU)
Behavioural Intention (BI) as
is defined as “the degree to
defined by Davis (1989) is “the
which a person believes that
measure of strength of ones
using a particular system
intention to perform a specified
would be free of effort”
behaviour”.


ii.
Perceived Usefulness (U) is
TAM also regards that EOU has a
defined as “the degree to which
direct effect on U and U has a direct on
a person believes that using a
BI which is illustrated in Figure 3.1 as
particular
system
would
having a direct impact on the Actual
enhance their performance”`
System Use.


The diagram in Figure 3.1 shows that
Examination of the TAM shows that
EOU and U are influenced by external
the root cause for the non-acceptance
variables, some examples might be:
of
a
technological
system
or
a users experience of the
application is the impact of the
current system and fear of
external variables on its potential
redundancy
users. The probability that a system
popular opinions to the new
will be accepted and used can be
implementation, both positive
increased by focusing and acting on
and negative and
the factors that influence users’
pressure from workers unions
perception of a system (Collerette et.
age – users feeling they are too
al, 2002).
old to learn (Collerette et. al,

2002)


The Human Development Report 2001
TAM
posits
that
the
two
(UNDP, 2001) lists three reasons for
characteristics, EOU and U results in
supporting the adoption of new
the potential users attitude towards
technology:
using
the
proposed
system
or
1. Potential benefits, where the
application (Davis, 1989).
expected benefits are at least as

great as the risks
Attitude Towards Using (A) as
2. Costs of inertia versus costs of
defined by Davis (1989) is “an
change,
where
new
individual’s
positive
or
technologies improve on those
negative
feeling
about
they replace
performing
the
target
3. Means of managing risks,
behaviour”
where potential harms can be

managed and their likelihood
A user’s behavioural intention or BI is
reduced
through
systematic
a person’s subjective probability that
scientific research
they will perform some behaviour

(Ajzen and Fishbein, 1967) and is
While the reasons listed above are
determined by the users’ attitude to the
valid from a managerial point of view,
proposed
system.
In
terms
of
it remains difficult to convince workers
technology acceptance, BI can be a
of the need for technological change
potential user’s intention ‘to use’ or
(Kotter,
1995).
People
react
in
intention ‘not to use’ a proposed
different ways to change, some
system
embrace change, some pine for the old

days of clearly defined roles and
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Technology and Change Management - Brenda Kearns
responsibilities (Fender, 2004). Born
3. Refreezing
–
making
the
suggests that in a typical BPR project
changes last (Lewin,
under 33% of the design effort should
1947).
concentrate
on
technologies
and

ideally over 2/3’s or more should deal
Figure 3.2 illustrates the change
with people issues (Born, 1995). The
process using a traffic light analogy:
introduction of any technological

solution is synonymous with change
1. Red: Stop usage of current
(Kuruppuarachchi, 2000). This paper
technology solution
proposes that using Davis’s TAM
2. Amber: The transition period
together with change management
between the old system and the
techniques coupled with the lessons
new system.
learned form the most common reasons
3. Green: Go, if the way is clear,
for Business Process Remodelling
i.e. implement the proposed
failure, it may be possible to enhance a
solution
so
long
as
the
user’s perception of a proposed system
environment
and
Human
and generate a positive attitude toward
Resources are ready to accept
using it. In theory, this will result in a
it.
positive behavioural intention towards

using the proposed technological
Change management is central to the
solution (PTS).
process of making the transition from

old system to new and change
Figure 3.2 illustrates a proposed
management
practices
should
be
reengineering of the TAM to account
employed throughout the transition
for system migration; it resembles the
(ITIL, 1999). The need for change, the
notion of Lewin’s 3-Step model of:
progress of the project and the benefits

of change should be communicated
1. Unfreezing – overcoming the
effectively throughout the change
habits and inertia of an
project.
organisation

2. Moving – making the change to
the new system


8

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Figure 3.2 TAM Traffic Light Model (Author, 2004)

The Current Technological Solution
U(p): Perceived Usefulness of
(CTS)
exhibits
similar
variables
the
proposed
technological
identified by the TAM:
solution
BI(c): Behavioural Intention
EOU(p): Perceived Ease of Use
towards using the current
of the proposed technological
solution
solution
A(c): Attitude towards using

the
current
technological
The introduction of new technological
solution
solutions is often met with resistance.
U(c): Perceived Usefulness of
Resistance to change can be regarded
the
current
technological
as an external variable, in which case
solution
will have a direct effect on U and EOU
EOU(c): Perceived Ease of Use
(Davis, 1989). Francis Patrick (2001)
of the current technological
proposes that the champion of change
solution
may perceive what the audience for

change considers as careful assessment
The Proposed Technological Solution
and scrutiny as resistance to change
(PTS) also exhibits similar variables
(Patrick, 2001) however, the human
identified by the TAM:
factors involved in change is cited as a
BI(p): Behavioural Intention
major obstacle (Collerette et. al, 2002).
towards using the proposed
To
overcome
the
obstacle
of
solution
“resistance to change”, it is necessary
A(p): Attitude towards using
to achieve “buy-in” from perspective
the
proposed
technological
users of the system and the likelihood
solution
of achieving “buy-in” is enhanced with
the
effective
use
of
change
management.
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Technology and Change Management - Brenda Kearns
Change
management
is
required
notes that dominant stakeholders use
through out the duration of the change
this tactic to misrepresent the change
project. The main focus should be to
efforts and present an enhanced view
understand the existing culture and
of the status quo.
skills set and communicate the new

vision and plan for the future (Born,
A stakeholder is defined as an
1995). The Traffic Light TAM model
individual or group of individuals such
is proposed as a visual aid to highlight
as employees, directors, shareholders,
the existence of acceptance variables in
service providers, consultants, external
both technological solutions. Paying
organisations who have an interest in
attention to common BPR pitfalls and
the change whether through their
utilizing change management models
involvement with the change or
such as the ADKAR model aims to
because they will be affected by its
positively increase the value of the
outcome (ITIL, 1999).
variable BI(p) while at the same time

decrease the value of the variable
Lindblom (1994) also identifies that
BI(c).
because
these
stakeholders
are

dominant and powerful, they can
The following sections will discuss
communicate and in other ways
resistance to change and the main BPR
influence the thinking of significant
pitfalls and examine the ADKAR
number of others and as a result,
model as one method of overcoming
change is resisted more successfully
resistance to change.
that it is initiated because its opponents
are so powerful and so many
3.2 Overcoming Resistance to
(Lindblom, 1994). Management alone
Change
have the overall view and the ability to
communicate it correctly to the
It is widely assumed that resistance to
organisation.
Lack
of
proper
change is a common and natural
communication
empowers
those
phenomenon
(Buchanan
and
stakeholders who want to resist the
Huczynski, 1985). Initiating change is
change (ITIL, 2000) and this resistance
a competitive and often hostile activity
to change undermines the change effort
(Lindblom, 1994). Major technological
(Trader-Leigh, 2002). Trader-Leigh
changes or innovations can anticipate
(2002) identifies six key resistance
resistance, especially when proposed
forces to organisational change listed
changes alter values and visions related
below. These key forces are also valid
to existing order (Trader-Leigh, 2002).
when applied to technological change:
Trader-Leigh (2002) likens it to “a

kind of warfare” and notes that anyone
who wants change has to overcome
1. Self-interest
Stakeholders seek to protect a
massive inertia. Technological change
status quo with which they are
that satisfies one group of people&nb