The Functional Food Properties of Figs

One example of such research is the work
by the USDA and others in the develop-
ment of a tomato high in lycopene, a caro-
tenoid understood to be an antioxidant and
anticancer substance. In some varieties, the
concentration of lycopene can be three
times that of regular tomatoes. The genes
responsible for the synthesis of carotenoids
such as lycopene have been isolated. The
genes have been inserted in an edible yeast
and have produced lycopene and
carotenoid at 0.1% dry weight of isolated
cells (2).
We are increasingly using foods as pre-
ventive agents to decrease our risk of
deadly chronic diseases, including cancer
and heart disease. The layperson is well
aware of the importance of diet to health as
a result of the U.S. government’s campaign
to increase our consumption of fruits and
vegetables to five servings/day. This article
is designed to provide information on a
relatively unknown but extremely “func-
tional” fruit, namely figs.
General Information
Figs (Ficus Carica) are one of the earli-
est fruits cultivated. Figs were dried and
stored for later consumption. There was a
fig tree in the Garden of Eden, and the fig
is the most mentioned fruit in the Bible.
Figs are mentioned in a Babylonian
hymnbook dated about 2000 B.C. As early
as 2900 B.C., in early Sumerian times, the
medical use of figs was already being
stressed. Legend has it that the Greek god-
dess Demeter first revealed to mortals the
fruit of autumn, which they called the fig.
It was the favorite fruit of Cleopatra, and
she ended her life with an asp brought to
her in a basket of figs. Every inhabitant of
Athens was a “philosykos,” literally trans-
lated, “a friend of the fig.” Early Olympic
athletes were given figs as a training food
Figs are restorative. They increase the strength of young people,
and figs were given as laurels to the
preserve the elderly in better health and make them look younger
winners of the first Olympics as a “medal”
with fewer wrinkles.—Pliny (52-113 AD)
(3). The Wildlife Conservation Society of
New York has recently determined that, in
If I should wish a fruit brought to Paradise, it would certainly be a fig.—
the animal and plant kingdom, the high-
Mohammed the Prophet
calcium content of wild figs makes them a
“keystone” fruit, critical to the survival of
ease or promote health,” as stated by Clare
other plants and animals (4).
J. A. VINSON
Hasler, director of the University of Illinois
Although considered a fruit, the fig is
University of Scranton
Functional Foods for Health Program.
actually a flower inverted into itself. The
Scranton, PA
Increasingly, manufacturers are including
seeds are the real fruit in figs. They are the
the names of nonnutritive components on
only fruit to ripen fully and semidry on the
he importance of “nutraceuticals,”
their labels. For example, the labels on
tree. Native to areas from Asiatic Turkey
Talso known as “functional foods,” in green tea list “polyphenols,” and those on to northern India, figs spread to all the
the American diet is highlighted by the fact
tofu list “isoflavones.” The public is be-
countries around the Mediterranean. Today
that consumers paid out $9 billion/year for
coming more knowledgeable about these
the United States, Turkey, Greece, and
these products (1). The definition of func-
nonnutritive ingredients because of the
Spain are the primary producers of dried
tional foods is still evolving but refers to
large amount of publicity and articles in
figs. The Spaniards brought figs to the
“foods that, by virtue of physiologically
the mass media.
Americas in the early 16th century. The
active components, provide benefits be-
Today there is an ever increasing de-
missionary fathers brought them to Cali-
yond basic nutrition and may prevent dis-
mand for foods that will increase our in-
fornia where they were planted from San
take of food components that are perceived
Diego to Sonoma. “Mission Fig” gets its
to be “protective against disease.” In the
name from this history. The Smyrna fig
future, genetic engineering will allow us to
was imported from Turkey to California in
Publication no. W-1999-0122-01F.
provide a variety of fruit or vegetables that
l882. It was given the hybrid name of
© 1999 American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc.
is highly elevated in a certain compound.
Calimyrna in honor of the grower’s home.
82 / FEBRUARY 1999, VOL. 44, NO. 2

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California, specifically the San Joaquin
snack, are an ideal addition to a child’s diet
correlation between the consumption of
Valley, produces 100% of the dried figs
and an adult’s because they represent an
fruits and vegetables and the incidence of
grown in the United States. Fig trees reach
excellent source of fiber and are naturally
cancer (8). These are summarized in Figure
fruit-bearing age in one to two years and
sweet.
1. There was a substantial reduction in risk
have tremendous longevity. Some trees
for all cancers among those consuming a
planted at the beginning of California’s
Nonnutrients in Figs and Benefits
large amount of fruits and vegetables. Pre-
commercial fig production are still bearing
in Reducing Risk of Cancer
viously, it was thought that the antioxidant
fruit almost 100 years later. There are four
It has been estimated that up to 70% of
vitamins, vitamin C, E, and ? carotene,
principal varieties of cultivated figs: the
the incidences of cancers are related to
were responsible for the beneficial effects
amber-colored Calimyrna; the dark, pur-
diet. Major dietary hypotheses relate high
of fruits and vegetables as shown by epi-
plish Mission; the small but high-in-sugar
fat consumption to breast and colorectal
demiology studies across many cultures.
Adriatic, and the uniquely white-to-
cancers; high alcohol intake to respiratory,
However, recent supplement studies have
translucent amber Kadota. The Calimyrna
gastrointestinal, breast, and liver cancers;
been disappointing with respect to that
and Mission varieties represent almost
and low fiber intake to colorectal cancer.
hypothesis. For instance, a recent National
two-thirds of the commercial production.
One hundred twenty-eight of 156 epidemi-
Cancer Institute study on male smokers
Dried figs are available in many forms:
ological studies have shown an inverse
was halted because it was found that 5–8
whole for the consumer and, in industrial
products, as paste, concentrate, nuggets,
powder, and diced forms. Potassium sor-
An advertisement appeared in the printed journal in this space.
bate is added to dried figs to inhibit yeast
fermentation and mold growth. Dried figs
are processed to bring their moisture con-
tent up from 14–20% to as high as 30%.
Compared to other dried fruits such as
apricots or apples, color in the Calimryna
variety may be stabilized by the addition of
low levels of sulfur dioxide (5).
Nutrient Composition of Dried Figs
One serving of figs is 100 g, about 1/4
cup, or about three Calimyrna or four to
five Mission figs. Table I lists the nutrient
composition of dried figs. Figs are fat free,
sodium free and, like other plant foods,
cholesterol free. A comparison of the nutri-
ent content of figs with that of other com-
mon fruits is given in Table II. Of the
common fruits, figs have the highest over-
all content of minerals, and their calcium
content per serving is second to oranges.
On a weight basis, figs contain more cal-
cium than any of the fruits listed in Table
II. Figs provide more fiber than all of the
common fruits. A single serving contains
20% of the daily value of fiber. More than
28% of the fiber is the soluble variety.
Soluble fiber has been shown to help con-
trol blood sugar and lower blood choles-
terol by binding to it in the digestive tract.
A recent study has shown that the addition
of a soluble-fiber supplement to the diet
can aid in weight loss. Pasman studied
obese women and found that average en-
ergy intake decreased significantly after
fiber supplementation while hunger and
satiety scores did not change. In a second
study of subjects with low-energy intakes,
hunger scores were significantly decreased
after fiber supplementation. The authors
concluded that, by facilitating compliance
to a low-energy intake, fiber may be useful
in the treatment of obesity (6). Thus, figs
and their soluble fiber may be of help with
weight reduction, particularly considering
the recent finding that over half of Ameri-
cans, 97 million people, are overweight
and 23% are grossly overweight, i.e., obese
(7). The upward trend in adult obesity seen
in the last 40 years has also been observed
in children. Figs, as both a fruit and a
CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 83

---

years of vitamin E supplementation had no
the animals experienced fewer tumors,
one, and bergapten (17). Coumarins have
benefit. ? carotene supplementation, in
smaller tumors, fewer metastases, less
also been used for the treatment of prostate
fact, was correlated with a significant
DNA damage, higher levels of enzymes
cancer (18, 19). Among cancers, the inci-
increase in the incidence of lung cancer
involved in the detoxification of carcino-
dence of skin cancer is currently growing
(9). No effect of supplementation with the
gens, or other outcomes indicative of lower
at the fastest rate. In New Zealand, the age-
antioxidants vitamin C, E, or Coenzyme
cancer risk (13). For an example, in one
standardized rates for melanoma have in-
Q10 was found with respect to oxidative
study, rats were given a diet with and with-
creased 60% compared to the rates in the
DNA damage in smokers (10).
out a vegetable-fruit mixture. The rats
1970s, with the greatest proportional in-
Out of almost 200 epidemiological
were exposed to a high-fat diet and a
crease occurring among younger age
studies, the relationship between cancer
chemical carcinogen that induced colorec-
groups (20). Psoralens, such as the fig
risk and fruit and vegetable intake is ex-
tal cancer. Rats fed high-fat diets devel-
compound angelicin, are currently being
ceptionally strong and consistent. People
oped significantly more tumors than did
investigated for the treatment of skin can-
who eat greater amounts of fruits and
rats fed low-fat diets, which indicates the
cer and have been recommended for clini-
vegetables have about one-half the risk of
underlying importance of a low-fat diet for
cal trials because they have low skin pho-
getting cancer and have less mortality from
lowering the risk of cancer. Also, in this
totoxicity (21). These compounds produce
cancer. It is the hypothesis of many scien-
study, a lower number of tumors were
free radicals and photoadducts of DNA that
tists that the polyphenols in the fruits and
found in the rats fed vegetables and fruits
inhibit proliferation of the cancer cells
vegetables are responsible for the reduced
along with the fat and a carcinogen (14).
(22).
cancer-risk benefits they offer. The
Besides their ubiquitous polyphenols,
polyphenols can act by several mecha-
figs have other compounds with anticancer
Mechanisms Leading
nisms to prevent cancer, such as carcino-
activity, specifically benzaldehyde and the
to Heart Disease
gen-blocking activities, antioxidant and
coumarins. Benzaldehyde has been used
Elevated lipids such as cholesterol and
free-radical scavenging, and antiprolifera-
successfully to treat terminal human carci-
triglycerides are risk factors for developing
tion/antiprogression actions (11). In test
nomas. Of 57 evaluable patients, 19 re-
heart disease, the number one cause of
tube studies, five classes of polyphenols
sponded completely and 10 responded with
death in the United States. The public
were tested for their ability to inhibit the
a greater than 50% regression in their can-
knows that a low-fat diet high in fiber is
binding of the potent carcinogen benzo-
cers when treated with benzaldehyde (15).
beneficial with respect to reducing the risk
pyrene to DNA in liver cells. These com-
Treatment of squamous cell carcinomas
of heart disease. However, another causal
pounds were active after being fed to rats
with benzaldehyde induced the cancer cells
mechanism related to metabolism and the
and subsequent exposure of the rats’ liver
to change into keratinized, normal
transport of lipids needs to be explained.
cells to the carcinogen (12).
squamous cells.
Lipids are water-insoluble nutrients, but
At least 22 studies have been conducted
Coumarins are the major compounds
they are transported through the body by
in which cancer has been experimentally
isolated from the volatile extract of figs
the blood. This is achieved by the lipids’
induced (usually by means of a chemical
(16). In fact, the total dry-weight cou-
“packaging” in water-soluble particles of
carcinogen or irradiation) in animals fed
marinic content of figs is 0.5% (17). The
lipoprotein. In these lipoproteins, the am-
vegetables or fruits. In most of these stud-
furanocomarins identified in figs include
phiphatic lipids (phospholipids and some
ies, it has been unequivocally found that
angelicin, marmesin, psoralen, umbellifer-
non-esterified cholesterol) and the receptor
protein are on the outside of the particles.
Table I. Nutrients Found in Dried Figs (5)
The hydrophobic lipids (cholesteryl esters,
triglycerides and some non-esterified cho-
Dietary Component
Amount per 100 g Serving
Daily Value
lesterol) are protected from water in the
Total calories
283
—
interior of the particles.
Calories from fat
4.7
—
The four main types of lipoproteins are
Total fat
0.52 g
0%
chylomicrons, very low-density lipoprotein
Saturated fat
0.0 g
0%
(VLDL), low-density (LDL) and high-
Cholesterol
0.0 mg
0%
Sodium
12.26 mg
0%
density lipoproteins (HDL). Chylomicrons
Potassium
609 mg
7%
transport triglycerides mainly from the
Total carbohydrate
66.16 g
9%
small intestine to the adipose tissue and
Total dietary fiber
12.21 g
skeletal muscle, while VLDL transports
Insoluble
8.74 g
20%
triglycerides mainly from the liver to the
Soluble
3.47 g
adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. In the
Sugars
49.0 g
—
circulation, VLDL is converted to LDL.
Protein
3.14 g
—
Each LDL particle is about 22 mm in di-
Vitamin A
9.76 IU
<2%
Vitamin C
0.68 mg
<2%
ameter on average and contains in its core
Calcium
133.0 mg
6%
about 1,800 oxidizable molecules in the
Iron
3.07 mg
6%
form of cholesteryl esters and triglycerides.
There are about 700 molecules of phos-
Table II. Comparison of Nutrients Provided in Serving Sizes of Common Fruits (5)
pholipid on the LDL particle’s surface as a
monolayer and approximately 600 mole-
Dietary
Calcium
cules of non-esterified cholesterol distrib-
Fruit (g)
Calories
Fiber (g)
Potassium (g)
(mg)
Iron (mg)
uted between its core and its surface.
Apples (154 g, 1 medium)
91
3.0
177
11.0
0.3
LDL’s antioxidant defense is contained
Bananas (126 g, 1 medium)
75
1.7
324
4.9
0.3
within the particle and consists of about 20
Dates (40 g, ¼ cup)
113
3.8
240
10.0
0.2
molecules, mostly the phenolic vitamin E
Dried figs (40 g, ¼ cup)
113
4.9
244
53.0
1.2
tocopherol with minor amounts of caro-
Grapes (138 g, 1½ cups)
98
0.8
255
15.0
0.4
tenoids and coenzyme Q (23).
Oranges (154 g, 1 medium)
72
2.9
279
62.0
0.2
10
Prunes (40 g, ¼ cup)
109
2.4
290
7.2
0.6
The oxidative theory of atherogenesis
Raisins (40 g, ¼ cup)
126
2.3
306
16.0
1.2
was first promulgated in Steinberg’s semi-
Strawberries (147g, 8
nal paper in 1989 (24). The hypothesis
medium)
147
2.2
244
20.6
0.6
states that it is not LDL or VLDL that is
84 / FEBRUARY 1999, VOL. 44, NO. 2

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atherogenic but the oxidized form of these
vonols (as measured in the diet by an
health professionals in the United States
lipoproteins. LDL and VLDL enter the
HPLC method) reduced the rate of coro-
found a modest but nonsignificant inverse
arterial wall from the plasma and are oxi-
nary heart disease mortality was released
association between intake of flavonols
dized locally within the wall by oxidizing
in l993 (33). The five-year study on elderly
and flavones and subsequent coronary
agents derived from cells, such as macro-
Dutch men also reported that intakes of
mortality rates (36). The risk was 37%
phages, smooth muscle cells, endothelial
tea, onions, and apples were inversely re-
lower for those the highest quintile of in-
cells, and lymphocytes. The oxidized LDL
lated to coronary heart disease mortality. A
take of flavonoids compared with those in
and VLDL are then believed to bind to
study of sixteen male cohorts in seven
the lowest.
scavenger receptors on macrophages and
countries, including the United States, was
In a study of the Dutch, elderly male
internalized rapidly by receptor-mediated
also published (34). It showed a strong
population, a study of 552 men followed
endocytosis. The amount of cholesterol
inverse association between flavonol plus
up for 15 years, dietary flavonoids were
from the lipoproteins entering the cells
flavone intake and mortality from coronary
inversely associated with incidence of
overwhelms the capacity of the macro-
heart disease. The composite diets of 1987
stroke, after adjustment for potential con-
phages to release it, and the cholesterol
were analyzed and used for the correlation
founders in the data, including antioxidant
accumulates inside the cells and converts
study. In multivariate analysis flavonoids
vitamins (37). Black tea consumption was
them to foam cells, which are the first visi-
explained 8% of the variance in heart dis-
inversely associated with incidence of
ble evidence of atherosclerosis. This hy-
ease rates. In fact, saturated fat and smok-
stroke. The intake of vitamin C and vita-
pothesis has been substantiated by many
ing plus flavonoids explained 90% of the
min E was not associated with stroke risk.
different pieces of evidence both in vitro
variance in heart disease rates, independent
and in vivo (25).
of alcohol and antioxidant vitamin intake
Polyphenols in Nuts, Cereals,
(34).
Fruits, Vegetables, and Beverages
Nonnutrients in Figs and
A Finnish study with a 26-year follow-
One limitation to these types of studies
Reduction of the Risk for Heart
up period showed a significant inverse
is that the methodology for determining
Disease
gradient between dietary intake of fla-
polyphenol intake generally underestimates
There is overwhelming epidemiological
vonoids and total and coronary mortality
the polyphenol content; therefore, this
evidence of the protective effect of vegeta-
(35). Between the lowest and highest quar-
error is carried over to the analyses in these
bles and fruits against heart disease and, as
tile of dietary flavonoids intake, there was
epidemiological studies. Using an acid-
has been recently found, stroke. A highly
a 31% lower risk of total mortality and a
hydrolysis and HPLC separation, Hertog
significant negative association between
48% lower risk of coronary mortality. For
measured the total aglycone content of five
the consumption of total fresh fruits and
men, there was a 34 and 32% lower risk,
flavonols and flavones in nine fruits and 28
vegetables and ischemic heart disease was
respectively. Apple and onion consumption
vegetables (38) and beverages (39). Using
reported in the United Kingdom (26) and
were inversely associated with total and
this assay method, it was found that the
in the United States (27). A significant
coronary mortality (35). A recently com-
average U.S. diet contains 20 mg/day of
negative relationship between fruit and
pleted epidemiological study of male
these five compounds (36). Thus, only five
vegetable consumption and stroke in men
was recently found in the Dutch Study
(28). An additional benefit of fruit and
vegetables is their negative association
with blood pressure (29), a risk factor for
heart disease.
The first indication that flavonoids could
function as protection against heart disease
came in a study published in the famous
1979 Lancet article, which, using data
from 17 countries, showed an inverse rela-
tionship between coronary artery-disease
mortality and wine drinking (30). This led
researchers to examine the so-called
“French paradox,” which describes the
apparent contradiction in the data on the
French, where a very low incidence of
heart disease and mortality, as compared
with North Americans, exists alongside the
same average serum cholesterol, saturated
fat intake, blood pressure, and prevalence
of smoking found in countries with high
rates of heart disease (31). It was hypothe-
sized that the French’s much greater intake
of wine was responsible for this effect.
Because, in France and the other countries
studied, red wine is normally consumed at
meals, it was natural to assume that the
flavonoids were responsible for this effect,
since red wines have a high polyphenol
content. Similarly, wine ethanol had the
strongest and most consistent negative
correlation with coronary heart disease
Fig. 1. The protective effect of fruits and vegetables in reducing the risk of cancers: A
mortality in 21 developed countries (32).
chart illustrating the increase in mortality from cancer in people consuming the least
The first epidemiological report indi-
amount of fruits and vegetables (first quartile) compared to those consuming the most
cating that the intake of antioxidant fla-
(fourth quartile) (8).
CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 85

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compounds out of the 4,000 known natural
substances were used in the epidemiologi-
The Author
cal methodology. Kühnau estimated the
intake of polyphenols to be about 1 g/day
(40). In our laboratory, the quantity of total
Joe Vinson received a B.S. in chemistry from the
polyphenols was measured in dried figs
University of California at Berkeley and a Ph.D. in
after an acid hydrolysis to liberate the free
chemistry from Iowa State University. Since 1990 he
phenols and polyphenols and followed by
has been a professor at the University of Scranton.
reaction with the Folin-Cocialteu reagent,
which assays oxidizable polyphenols
versus a catechin standard (41). Our vege-
table (41) and fig data is included along
with published total polyphenols for other
foods and beverages in Table III (40, 42).
Using 100 g as a comparison, it is evi-
Future Directions
Evaluation and Treatment of Overweight
dent on a weight basis that figs contain one
The National Cancer Institute and the
and Obesity in Adults. The Institute, l998.
of the highest concentrations of polyphe-
National Research Council recommend
8. Block G. A role for antioxidants in reduc-
nols among the commonly consumed foods
ing cancer risk. Nutr. Rev. 50:207, l992.
eating at least five servings of fruits and
and beverages. Only barley, some sor-
9. Heinonen O. P., and Albanes, D. The effect
vegetables per day, but only 23% of
of vitamin E and ? carotene on the inci-
ghums, and some beans have the same high
Americans eat this much (43). A 1991
dence of lung cancer and other cancers in
levels found in figs. Compared with figs,
survey found that the average American’s
male smokers. New Engl. J. Med.
red wine and tea, two well known and
intake of fruit and vegetables was 3.4
330:1029, 1994.
well-publicized sources of polyphenols, are
servings per day. Between 1991 and l994,
10. Preimé H., Lofft, S., Nyyssönen J. T., and
low in phenols. Putting it in perspective,
the average fruit and vegetable consump-
Poulsen H. E. No effect of supplementa-
40 g of figs, the suggested serving size,
tion increased from 3.9 to 4.4 servings/day
tion with vitamin E, ascorbic acid, or co-
provide an average of 444 mg of phenols,
enzyme Q10 on oxidative DNA damage
(44). This shows that the American public
which is more than the daily per capita
estimated by 8-oxo-7,8- dihydro-2'-deoxy-
is beginning to heed the messages about
guanosine excretion in smokers. Am. J.
consumption of polyphenols from vegeta-
fruits and vegetables and a healthy diet.
Clin. Nutr. 65:503, l997.
bles or 218 mg/day (41).
These recommendations have been made
11. Kellogg, G. J., Boone, C. W., Steele, V. E.,
because fruits and vegetables are good
Fay, J. R., Lubet, R. A., Crowell, J. A., and
sources of vitamins and minerals and are
Sigman, C. C. Mechanistic considerations
Table III. Total Polyphenol Content of
low in fat and high in fiber. An added
in chemopreventive drug development. J.
Common Foods and Beverages (40, 41, 42)
Cell. Biochem. Suppl. 20:1, l994.
benefit is the high level of antioxidants

12. Le Bon, A. M., Siess, M. H., and
Total
present in fruits and vegetables.
Suschetet, M. Inhibition of microsome-
Food/Beveragea
Polyphenols
Figs are an excellent source of fiber,
mediated binding of benzopyrene to DNA
Cereals (mg/100 g dm)
minerals, and polyphenols. They are low in
by flavonoids either in vitro or after dietary
Barley
1,200–1,500
sodium and have no fat or cholesterol. It
adminstration to rats. Chem.-Biol. Interac-
Corn
30.9
remains to be shown in future studies
tions 83:65, l992.
Oats
8.7
whether the human consumption of figs
13. Steinmetz, K. A., and Potter, J. D. Vegeta-
Rice
8.6
can lead to a lowering of the risk factors
bles, fruit and cancer prevention: a review.
Sorghum
170–10,260
Amer. Dietet. Assoc. 96:1027, l996.
for cancer, such as a decrease in oxidative
Wheat
22–40
14. Rijnkels, J. M., Hollanders, V. M., Wout-
damage to DNA. With respect to heart
ersen, R. A., Koeman, J. H., and Alink, G.
Legumes (mg/100 g fm)
disease, do figs produce a decrease in lip-
M. Interaction of dietary fat with a vegeta-
Kidney bean
948
ids and a decrease in oxidative damage to
bles-fruit mixture on 1,2-dimethylhydra-
Pinto bean
856
LDL? One interesting clue is the fact that
zine-induced colorectal cancer in rats.
Snap bean
36
figs have been found to contain choles-
Nutr. Cancer 27:261, l997.
Vegetables (mg/100 g fm)
terol-lowering phytosterols, lanosterol, and

15. Kochi, M., Takeuchi, S., Mizutani, T.,
Beet
246
Mochizutki, K., Matsumoto, Y., and Saito,
stigmasterol (45). Only future research will
Broccoli
108
Y. Antitumor activity of benzaldehyde.
answer these intriguing questions.
Corn
147
Cancer Treat. Rep. 64:21, l980.
Garlic
387
16. Gibernau, M., Buser, H. R., Frey, J. E., and
Red onion
120
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