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The Role of Expectancy Theory and Observed Constituency Response Levels to Exposure Drafts in Accounting Standard ­Setting in New Zealand

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A brief history of studies of standard setting and constituency lobbying is summarised, and a description of standard setting in New Zealand is provided. Historically, levels of responses to exposure drafts in New Zealand indicate there is no clear existing body of theory to clarify the factors contributing to the pattern in responses to exposure drafts in the last twenty years. The historic longitudinal data from New Zealand exposure drafts exhibited a pattern which could be described as consistently low with two major fluctuations. An alternative approach (expectancy theory) is explored. It is proposed that the response level in New Zealand was generally low over time because there is not a sufficient belief by stakeholders that the Board will change the resulting standard sufficiently to ensure making a submission is cost­benefit efficient. It is suggested that the fluctuations represent periods when there were changes in expectancy by participants of their potential influence on due process.
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The Role of Expectancy Theory and Observed 
Constituency Response Levels to Exposure Drafts 
in Accounting Standard­Setting in New Zealand 
WORKING PAPER SERIES 
Working Paper no. 33 
2005 
Rachel F. Baskerville 
School of Accounting and Commercial Law, 
Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand 
*Correspondence to: Rachel Baskerville, School of Accounting and Commercial Law, 
Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand 
Email: rachel.baskerville@vuw.ac.nz 
Tel:  ++(64)(4) 463 6474 
Fax: ++(64)(4) 463 5076 
Centre for Accounting, Governance and Taxation Research 
School of Accounting and Commercial Law 
Victoria University of Wellington 
PO Box 600 
Wellington 
NEW ZEALAND 

Tel.    + 64 4 463 6957 
Fax.   + 64 4 463 5076 
http://www.accounting­research.org.nz


The Role of Expectancy Theory and Observed Constituency 
Response Levels to Exposure Drafts in Accounting Standard­ 
Setting in New Zealand 
Rachel F. Baskerville 
School of Accounting and Commercial Law, Victoria University of Wellington


The role of expectancy theory and observed constituency 
response levels to exposure drafts in accounting standard­setting 
in New Zealand 
Abstract: 
A  brief  history  of  studies  of  standard  setting  and  constituency  lobbying  is 
summarised,  and  a  description  of  standard  setting  in  New  Zealand  is  provided. 
Historically,  levels  of  responses  to  exposure  drafts  in  New  Zealand  indicate  there  is 
no  clear  existing  body  of  theory  to  clarify  the  factors  contributing  to  the  pattern  in 
responses  to  exposure  drafts  in  the  last  twenty  years.  The  historic  longitudinal  data 
from  New  Zealand  exposure  drafts  exhibited  a  pattern  which  could  be  described  as 
consistently  low  with  two  major  fluctuations.  An  alternative  approach  (expectancy 
theory)  is  explored.  It  is  proposed  that  the  response  level  in  New  Zealand  was 
generally low over time because there is not a sufficient belief by stakeholders that the 
Board will change the resulting standard sufficiently to ensure making a submission is 
cost­benefit efficient. It is suggested that the fluctuations represent periods when there 
were  changes  in  expectancy  by  participants  of  their  potential  influence  on  due 
process.


The role of expectancy theory and observed constituency 
response levels to exposure drafts in accounting standard­setting 
in New Zealand 
1. 
INTRODUCTION 
Accounting  research  literature  in  the  last  two  decades  is  replete  with  studies 
examining the accounting standard setting process in the United States and elsewhere 
(Gibson,  1980;  Brown,  1981,  MacArthur,  1988,  Mezias  &  Chung.  1989;  Tandy  & 
Wilburn, 1992;  Kenny & Larson, 1995). Yet one aspect of this process, the diversity 
of  factors which determine the participation  levels of standard­setters constituencies, 
is not well understood. This aspect is the focus of the present study. 
From studies in the United States in particular  it is apparent that although the 
topic generates regular  research  attention, there remains an absence of consensus on 
the most useful theoretical approach under which such research should be undertaken. 
In addition to this diversity of approach, studies tend to focus on the constituency of 
only one Board, or only one promulgation and responses to it. 
In contrast to the existing  literature, the following examination of accounting 
standard setting and due process in New Zealand focuses on changes in the standard­ 
setting  structures,  examines  constituency  response  over  two  decades  of  institutional 
change, and changing expectations by constituents within accounting standard­setting. 
This dynamic of institutional change is important because the degree to which 
there  have  been  changes  in  the  structures  for  standard  setting  varies  considerably 
between  jurisdictions.  The  mechanisms  for  standard  setting  which  evolved  and 
adapted from the establishment of the FASB in 1973 were not paralleled by a similar 
equilibrium  elsewhere  in  the  United  Kingdom,  Australia,  or  New  Zealand.  Such


institutional changes  have repercussions on the  effective operation of due process  in 
these different jurisdictions. 
A  study  of  these  factors  in  New  Zealand  in  particular  is  valuable  because  of 
the  substantive  changes  in  the  structure  of  standard­setting  in  New  Zealand  since 
1992.  A major finding of this research is that the historic changes in standard­setting 
boards appears to impact on participation in due process. If accounting professionals 
gain  a  better  understanding  of  what  motivates  constituency  responses,  they  may  be 
able  to  achieve  more  involvement  by  diverse  members  of  the  constituency,  which 
may  in  turn  lead  to  greater  acceptance  and  effective  application  of  accounting 
standards.    In  New  Zealand  in  particular  this  would  necessitate  the  two  standard 
setting Boards to be more responsive to the input received in submissions on exposure 
drafts. In the situation now faced by those wishing to lobby on accounting standards, 
the move to IFRSs will, undoubtedly, result in even less participation on a one­on­one 
basis. In a recent review of the decision to adopt IFRS  in New Zealand provided  by 
Bradbury and  van Zijl (2006), they describe  how this decision triggered the  issue of 
which entities have to report, changes in due process and the subsequent decisions on 
implementation of the adoption.  As they note: 
“New Zealand’s financial reporting constituency can participate in the IASB’s 
due process (a more extensive process than  has existed  in New Zealand) and 
also be directly represented by the New Zealand standard setter in the IASB’s 
research  and  standards  development  processes.    However,  this  advantage  is 
likely  to  dissipate  over  time  as  larger  countries  increase  their  capacity  in 
standard setting and funding for standard setters in New Zealand comes under 
increasing pressure” Bradbury and van Zijl (2006).


New Zealand preparers and users are now in a position where it is overly optimistic to 
anticipate  more participation  in due process than  in the past. This  means  identifying 
changing expectations by constituents within accounting standard­setting will be more 
difficult  in  the  future,  which  is  the  objective  of  this  study.  The  structure  of  the 
remainder of this paper is as follows:
·  A  review  of  major  studies  of  due  process  and  response  levels  is  provided  in  the 
next section;
·  Section  3  describes  the  history  of  standard­setting  in  New  Zealand  and  factors 
leading to recent institutional changes;
·  In Section 4 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory is described, and implications explored;
·  The  recent  historic  response  levels  in  New  Zealand  are  described  and  possible 
explanations of the varying levels of responses are the topics in Section 5; and
·  This  paper  concludes  in  Section  6  with  a  consideration  of  the  implications  of 
expectancy  theory,  and  suggested  further  directions  for  study  in  this  area  of 
accounting research. 
2. 
REVIEW OF STUDIES OF DUE PROCESS AND RESPONSE LEVELS 
Past  research  into  due  process  and  submissions  to  standard­setting  boards  indicates 
that research in this area has evolved from studies of responses to particular exposure 
drafts to cross­sectorial or longitudinal studies; partly this occurred as a larger body of


systematic data became available. The variety of approaches in studies of due process 
can be clustered into three groups: 
1.  General  studies  of  the  levels  of  responses  to  exposure  drafts  by  various 
standard­setting bodies; 
2.  The  responses  of  a  particular  sector (e.g. the  corporate  sector or the  academic 
sector); and 
3.  Responses to a particular topic addressed in one or more exposure drafts. 
Restricting this literature only to studies that examined the levels of responses 
to exposure drafts, the results are summarised in Table 1 as follows: 
[Table 1 in here] 
Subsequent to a review of this research, it appears that a detailed examination of the 
content  of  submissions  and  of  the  subsequent  standard  does  do  not  give  many 
researchers  confidence  to  relate  the  changes  or  withdrawal  of  the  exposure  draft  to 
submission  content.  This  suggests  there  still  remains  considerable  scope  for  further 
investigation to establish whether  or not there are tenable hypotheses concerning the 
relationship between the level of responses, incentives for responding, the content of 
submissions,  and  the  outcome  of  due  process,  in  research  on  the  effectiveness  of 
institutionalised due process. 
In addition to studies summarised in Table 1 there have been various reviews 
of the standard setting boards to examine criticisms of lack of responsiveness by the 
Boards.  In  the  United  States  responsiveness  by  the  Board  is  considered  to  be  an 
important  determinant  of  constituency  satisfaction  with  the  standard  setting


institutions,  and  is  repeatedly  surveyed  in  reviews  of  the  FASB.  The  1978  FASB 
survey  of  attitudes  over  its  first  five  years  of  operation  found  that  43%  respondents 
did  not consider  there had been any change  in the responsiveness of the new Board, 
although further 43% thought the FASB was more responsive. 
In Canada, the 1977 Adams Report (The Report of the Special Committee to 
Examine the Role of the Auditor) noted that from the review of the regulation of the 
profession, the typical rate of 50 to 100 responses (to at least 40,000 ED’s which had 
been mailed out) led them to question “whether the benefits of this procedure could be 
achieved  by alternative  means at  less cost” (1978:60). Douglas Thomas (Director of 
Research for the Canadian Institute) suggested in 1978 that “if thoughtful people are 
going to take the time to comment on exposure drafts, they must be assured that the 
committee  is  prepared  to  reconsider  its  position  when  new  points  are  raised” 
(Thomas,  1978:  62).  He  considered  that  these  comments  invariably  resulted  in 
changes  to  the  exposure  draft,  some  of  which  were  substantive,  before  the  standard 
was  promulgated;  although  such  comments  were  not  further  substantiated  with  data 
analysis. 
Furthermore,  it  was  clear  from  this  literature  review  that  although  some 
research methodologies have proposed models to enable an accurate prediction of the 
likelihood of  lobbying  as  a  single  event  activity  (based  on  firm  characteristics),  few 
studies  have  examined  the  response  patterns  from  any  sectors  longitudinally  over  a 
series of promulgations, nor through periods of institutional or structural charge. Early 
USA studies were contemporaneous with the 1973 establishment of the FASB. 
The  drivers  to  the  varying  levels  of  responses  may  be  other  than  firm 
characteristics, or the content of the exposure draft. The expectation by respondents of


their  ability  to  impact  on  the  development  of  the  proposed  standards  is  only  rarely 
evaluated. The Tandy and  Wilburn study was noteworthy  in this aspect; participants 
considered  that  participation  was  deterred  by  low  expectations  of  affecting  FASB 
decisions (1996: 106). 
The remainder of this paper will address issues surrounding expectancy theory 
and  the  light  this  may  cast  on  this  topic.  It  will  be  suggested  that  when  there  are 
changes  in  the  organisational  or  institutional  environment,  then  there  is  a  parallel 
change in the expectation of the constituents in their ability to impact of the standard­ 
setting  processes.  In  order  to  provide  evidence  of  the  likelihood  of  such  a  dynamic 
driving  variations  in  the  response  levels  to  exposure  drafts,  data  will  be  presented 
which documents the levels of responses in New Zealand in the last 22 years. The last 
two decades in New Zealand provide evidence from a jurisdiction over a period when 
there have been a series of major institutional changes to the standard­setting body. A 
summary of the standard setting structures in New Zealand and the changes in them is 
relevant to this objective. 
3. 
STANDARD SETTING IN NEW ZEALAND 
In  order  to  focus  on  variations  in  the  levels  of  responses  to  exposure  drafts  in  New 
Zealand, the following brief summary indicates the manner in which standard setting 
in  New  Zealand  is  organised.  Events  in  the  evolution  of  standard  setting  Boards  in 
New  Zealand  do  not  easily  fit  in  with  the  patterns  of  the  establishment  of  standard 
setting bodies in Australia, United Kingdom or the United States (Gibson, 1980: 152). 
Table 2: STANDARD SETTING AUTHORITIES IN NEW ZEALAND: 
Date 
Board 
Reasons for new Board 
Promulgations 
Refs. 
Established 
1950 
Accounting 
To make pronouncements and proved 
Zeff, 1976


Practice and 
guidance, whether based on overseas 
page 17 ­19 
Procedure 
practice or specific to New Zealand, 
Committee 
and to lobby Government committees, 
especially Companies Act Review 
1960 
Board of Research 
Reconstruction of previous committee 
First Statement of 
Zeff, 1976 
and Publications 
as a Board to which the different 
Accounting Practice 
Chapter 3 
committees contributed; full­time 
in 1966 
Research Officer appointed in 1973 
1980 
Accounting 
10 of the 13 members of the ARSB 
Statements of 
Millen, 
Research and 
had to be members of the New 
Standard 
1986 
Standards Board 
Zealand Society of Accountants 
Accounting Practice 
(ARSB) 
(NZSA) but had more autonomy from 
Council; primary function was the 
development of accounting standards. 
1992 
Financial Reporting 
The ARSB was dissolved and 
The first Financial 
Simpkins, 
Standards Board 
replaced with two boards: the 
Reporting Standards 
1993 
(FRSB) 
Professional Practices Board to issue 
with mandatory 
auditing standards, and the FRSB to 
status through the 
publish financial reporting standards 
Companies Act 
and interpretations or technical 
were approved by 
guidance as necessary; still entirely 
the ASRB (see 
funded by the NZSA 
below) in 1994 
1994 
Accounting 
A Government­appointed and funded 
The ASRB has no 
Financial 
Standards Review 
independent board to review and 
mandate to develop 
Reporting 
Board 
approve financial reporting standards 
standards, but 
Act 1993 
(ASRB) 
considers those 
submitted to it 
The mechanisms for due process throughout the 1970’s and 1980’s under the different 
Boards  largely  paralleled  processes  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Initially,  the  Board  of 
Research and Publications issued Tentative Statements of Accounting Practice; these 
were issued at least once with requests for comments; and then eventually submitted 
to the Council of the NZSA for approval, to become final Statements of Accounting 
Practice. After Tentative Statement of Accounting Practice 9 on inventory valuation, 
the  name  of  these  preliminary  documents  changed  to  Exposure  Draft,  but  with  no 
change in due process. 
In  1973  the  Board  of  Research  and  Publications  decided  that  the  system  for 
developing standards should be similar to that in the United Kingdom, and ED­10 on 
current purchasing power proposals was the first issued under the newly reconstituted 
system in New Zealand.


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