The Role of Expectancy Theory and Observed
Constituency Response Levels to Exposure Drafts
in Accounting StandardSetting in New Zealand
WORKING PAPER SERIES
Working Paper no. 33
2005
Rachel F. Baskerville
School of Accounting and Commercial Law,
Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
*Correspondence to: Rachel Baskerville, School of Accounting and Commercial Law,
Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
Email: rachel.baskerville@vuw.ac.nz
Tel: ++(64)(4) 463 6474
Fax: ++(64)(4) 463 5076
Centre for Accounting, Governance and Taxation Research
School of Accounting and Commercial Law
Victoria University of Wellington
PO Box 600
Wellington
NEW ZEALAND
Tel. + 64 4 463 6957
Fax. + 64 4 463 5076
http://www.accountingresearch.org.nz
The Role of Expectancy Theory and Observed Constituency
Response Levels to Exposure Drafts in Accounting Standard
Setting in New Zealand
Rachel F. Baskerville
School of Accounting and Commercial Law, Victoria University of Wellington
1
The role of expectancy theory and observed constituency
response levels to exposure drafts in accounting standardsetting
in New Zealand
Abstract:
A brief history of studies of standard setting and constituency lobbying is
summarised, and a description of standard setting in New Zealand is provided.
Historically, levels of responses to exposure drafts in New Zealand indicate there is
no clear existing body of theory to clarify the factors contributing to the pattern in
responses to exposure drafts in the last twenty years. The historic longitudinal data
from New Zealand exposure drafts exhibited a pattern which could be described as
consistently low with two major fluctuations. An alternative approach (expectancy
theory) is explored. It is proposed that the response level in New Zealand was
generally low over time because there is not a sufficient belief by stakeholders that the
Board will change the resulting standard sufficiently to ensure making a submission is
costbenefit efficient. It is suggested that the fluctuations represent periods when there
were changes in expectancy by participants of their potential influence on due
process.
2
The role of expectancy theory and observed constituency
response levels to exposure drafts in accounting standardsetting
in New Zealand
1.
INTRODUCTION
Accounting research literature in the last two decades is replete with studies
examining the accounting standard setting process in the United States and elsewhere
(Gibson, 1980; Brown, 1981, MacArthur, 1988, Mezias & Chung. 1989; Tandy &
Wilburn, 1992; Kenny & Larson, 1995). Yet one aspect of this process, the diversity
of factors which determine the participation levels of standardsetters constituencies,
is not well understood. This aspect is the focus of the present study.
From studies in the United States in particular it is apparent that although the
topic generates regular research attention, there remains an absence of consensus on
the most useful theoretical approach under which such research should be undertaken.
In addition to this diversity of approach, studies tend to focus on the constituency of
only one Board, or only one promulgation and responses to it.
In contrast to the existing literature, the following examination of accounting
standard setting and due process in New Zealand focuses on changes in the standard
setting structures, examines constituency response over two decades of institutional
change, and changing expectations by constituents within accounting standardsetting.
This dynamic of institutional change is important because the degree to which
there have been changes in the structures for standard setting varies considerably
between jurisdictions. The mechanisms for standard setting which evolved and
adapted from the establishment of the FASB in 1973 were not paralleled by a similar
equilibrium elsewhere in the United Kingdom, Australia, or New Zealand. Such
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institutional changes have repercussions on the effective operation of due process in
these different jurisdictions.
A study of these factors in New Zealand in particular is valuable because of
the substantive changes in the structure of standardsetting in New Zealand since
1992. A major finding of this research is that the historic changes in standardsetting
boards appears to impact on participation in due process. If accounting professionals
gain a better understanding of what motivates constituency responses, they may be
able to achieve more involvement by diverse members of the constituency, which
may in turn lead to greater acceptance and effective application of accounting
standards. In New Zealand in particular this would necessitate the two standard
setting Boards to be more responsive to the input received in submissions on exposure
drafts. In the situation now faced by those wishing to lobby on accounting standards,
the move to IFRSs will, undoubtedly, result in even less participation on a oneonone
basis. In a recent review of the decision to adopt IFRS in New Zealand provided by
Bradbury and van Zijl (2006), they describe how this decision triggered the issue of
which entities have to report, changes in due process and the subsequent decisions on
implementation of the adoption. As they note:
“New Zealand’s financial reporting constituency can participate in the IASB’s
due process (a more extensive process than has existed in New Zealand) and
also be directly represented by the New Zealand standard setter in the IASB’s
research and standards development processes. However, this advantage is
likely to dissipate over time as larger countries increase their capacity in
standard setting and funding for standard setters in New Zealand comes under
increasing pressure” Bradbury and van Zijl (2006).
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New Zealand preparers and users are now in a position where it is overly optimistic to
anticipate more participation in due process than in the past. This means identifying
changing expectations by constituents within accounting standardsetting will be more
difficult in the future, which is the objective of this study. The structure of the
remainder of this paper is as follows:
· A review of major studies of due process and response levels is provided in the
next section;
· Section 3 describes the history of standardsetting in New Zealand and factors
leading to recent institutional changes;
· In Section 4 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory is described, and implications explored;
· The recent historic response levels in New Zealand are described and possible
explanations of the varying levels of responses are the topics in Section 5; and
· This paper concludes in Section 6 with a consideration of the implications of
expectancy theory, and suggested further directions for study in this area of
accounting research.
2.
REVIEW OF STUDIES OF DUE PROCESS AND RESPONSE LEVELS
Past research into due process and submissions to standardsetting boards indicates
that research in this area has evolved from studies of responses to particular exposure
drafts to crosssectorial or longitudinal studies; partly this occurred as a larger body of
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systematic data became available. The variety of approaches in studies of due process
can be clustered into three groups:
1. General studies of the levels of responses to exposure drafts by various
standardsetting bodies;
2. The responses of a particular sector (e.g. the corporate sector or the academic
sector); and
3. Responses to a particular topic addressed in one or more exposure drafts.
Restricting this literature only to studies that examined the levels of responses
to exposure drafts, the results are summarised in Table 1 as follows:
[Table 1 in here]
Subsequent to a review of this research, it appears that a detailed examination of the
content of submissions and of the subsequent standard does do not give many
researchers confidence to relate the changes or withdrawal of the exposure draft to
submission content. This suggests there still remains considerable scope for further
investigation to establish whether or not there are tenable hypotheses concerning the
relationship between the level of responses, incentives for responding, the content of
submissions, and the outcome of due process, in research on the effectiveness of
institutionalised due process.
In addition to studies summarised in Table 1 there have been various reviews
of the standard setting boards to examine criticisms of lack of responsiveness by the
Boards. In the United States responsiveness by the Board is considered to be an
important determinant of constituency satisfaction with the standard setting
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institutions, and is repeatedly surveyed in reviews of the FASB. The 1978 FASB
survey of attitudes over its first five years of operation found that 43% respondents
did not consider there had been any change in the responsiveness of the new Board,
although further 43% thought the FASB was more responsive.
In Canada, the 1977 Adams Report (The Report of the Special Committee to
Examine the Role of the Auditor) noted that from the review of the regulation of the
profession, the typical rate of 50 to 100 responses (to at least 40,000 ED’s which had
been mailed out) led them to question “whether the benefits of this procedure could be
achieved by alternative means at less cost” (1978:60). Douglas Thomas (Director of
Research for the Canadian Institute) suggested in 1978 that “if thoughtful people are
going to take the time to comment on exposure drafts, they must be assured that the
committee is prepared to reconsider its position when new points are raised”
(Thomas, 1978: 62). He considered that these comments invariably resulted in
changes to the exposure draft, some of which were substantive, before the standard
was promulgated; although such comments were not further substantiated with data
analysis.
Furthermore, it was clear from this literature review that although some
research methodologies have proposed models to enable an accurate prediction of the
likelihood of lobbying as a single event activity (based on firm characteristics), few
studies have examined the response patterns from any sectors longitudinally over a
series of promulgations, nor through periods of institutional or structural charge. Early
USA studies were contemporaneous with the 1973 establishment of the FASB.
The drivers to the varying levels of responses may be other than firm
characteristics, or the content of the exposure draft. The expectation by respondents of
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their ability to impact on the development of the proposed standards is only rarely
evaluated. The Tandy and Wilburn study was noteworthy in this aspect; participants
considered that participation was deterred by low expectations of affecting FASB
decisions (1996: 106).
The remainder of this paper will address issues surrounding expectancy theory
and the light this may cast on this topic. It will be suggested that when there are
changes in the organisational or institutional environment, then there is a parallel
change in the expectation of the constituents in their ability to impact of the standard
setting processes. In order to provide evidence of the likelihood of such a dynamic
driving variations in the response levels to exposure drafts, data will be presented
which documents the levels of responses in New Zealand in the last 22 years. The last
two decades in New Zealand provide evidence from a jurisdiction over a period when
there have been a series of major institutional changes to the standardsetting body. A
summary of the standard setting structures in New Zealand and the changes in them is
relevant to this objective.
3.
STANDARD SETTING IN NEW ZEALAND
In order to focus on variations in the levels of responses to exposure drafts in New
Zealand, the following brief summary indicates the manner in which standard setting
in New Zealand is organised. Events in the evolution of standard setting Boards in
New Zealand do not easily fit in with the patterns of the establishment of standard
setting bodies in Australia, United Kingdom or the United States (Gibson, 1980: 152).
Table 2: STANDARD SETTING AUTHORITIES IN NEW ZEALAND:
Date
Board
Reasons for new Board
Promulgations
Refs.
Established
1950
Accounting
To make pronouncements and proved
Zeff, 1976
8
Practice and
guidance, whether based on overseas
page 17 19
Procedure
practice or specific to New Zealand,
Committee
and to lobby Government committees,
especially Companies Act Review
1960
Board of Research
Reconstruction of previous committee
First Statement of
Zeff, 1976
and Publications
as a Board to which the different
Accounting Practice
Chapter 3
committees contributed; fulltime
in 1966
Research Officer appointed in 1973
1980
Accounting
10 of the 13 members of the ARSB
Statements of
Millen,
Research and
had to be members of the New
Standard
1986
Standards Board
Zealand Society of Accountants
Accounting Practice
(ARSB)
(NZSA) but had more autonomy from
Council; primary function was the
development of accounting standards.
1992
Financial Reporting
The ARSB was dissolved and
The first Financial
Simpkins,
Standards Board
replaced with two boards: the
Reporting Standards
1993
(FRSB)
Professional Practices Board to issue
with mandatory
auditing standards, and the FRSB to
status through the
publish financial reporting standards
Companies Act
and interpretations or technical
were approved by
guidance as necessary; still entirely
the ASRB (see
funded by the NZSA
below) in 1994
1994
Accounting
A Governmentappointed and funded
The ASRB has no
Financial
Standards Review
independent board to review and
mandate to develop
Reporting
Board
approve financial reporting standards
standards, but
Act 1993
(ASRB)
considers those
submitted to it
The mechanisms for due process throughout the 1970’s and 1980’s under the different
Boards largely paralleled processes in the United Kingdom. Initially, the Board of
Research and Publications issued Tentative Statements of Accounting Practice; these
were issued at least once with requests for comments; and then eventually submitted
to the Council of the NZSA for approval, to become final Statements of Accounting
Practice. After Tentative Statement of Accounting Practice 9 on inventory valuation,
the name of these preliminary documents changed to Exposure Draft, but with no
change in due process.
In 1973 the Board of Research and Publications decided that the system for
developing standards should be similar to that in the United Kingdom, and ED10 on
current purchasing power proposals was the first issued under the newly reconstituted
system in New Zealand.
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