The Role of Intrinsic Motivation in System Adoption : A Cross-Cultural Perspective

Journal of Information, Information Technology, and Organizations
Volume 4, 2009
The Role of Intrinsic Motivation in System
Adoption: A Cross-Cultural Perspective
Raafat George Saadé, Fassil Nebebe, and Tak Mak
John Molson School of Business, Concordia University,
Montreal, Canada
rsinfo@sympatico.ca; fnebebe@jmsb.concordia.ca;
takmak@alcor.concordia.ca
Abstract
There are relatively few empirical studies that examine cultural differences in students’ motiva-
tion and acceptance to use web-based learning systems. Asian and Western countries have differ-
ent systems of thought, which are rooted in their respective national culture. Although there are a
number of theories to explain individuals’ behavior within different cultures, few studies have
been published on web-based learning differences. In this study, we investigate the motivational
differences among Chinese and Canadian online learners. We enhance the body of knowledge by
analyzing the effects of intrinsic motivation on the technology acceptance model, its applicability
to the two cultural groups, and the use of the theory of “cognitive systems of thought” to gain in-
sight.
Keywords: Web-based Learning System, Extrinsic Motivation, Intentions, China, Intrinsic Moti-
vation, Enjoyment, Cognitive Systems of Thought, Culture, Technology Acceptance Model
Introduction
Gaining knowledge is the primary focus of all stakeholders in higher educational institutions be-
cause it is fundamental to the learning process of students. Maximizing the ability to gain knowl-
edge implies that continued efforts should be kept to progressively enhance the learning process.
This is one of the major challenges facing contemporary universities today, especially today with
more and more universities offering web-based distance courses: a learning environment which
many find unfamiliar and very different from the traditional face-to-face classroom. It is accepted
today, however, that some of the more important advantages of web-based learning are that it
gives students more study flexibility and broader accessibility, improves students’ performance,
enhances their learning experiences, and increases their computer self-efficacy (M. K. O. Lee,
Cheung, & Chen, 2005; Piccoli, Ahmad, & Ives, 2001; Saadé, Tan, & Nebebe, 2008). Academic
institutions also benefit by reducing
costs and increasing revenues.
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Role of Intrinsic Motivation in System Adoption
sets are strong and embedded in their cultural context, which influences the outcomes of their
efforts for an enhanced learning experience. To that effect and especially in the context of web-
based learning systems (WLSs), designers (and institutions) must find ways to encourage learners
to be active participants. According to expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964), the more positive out-
comes are perceived to be associated with a given action, the more inclined individuals will be to
perform that action. From the perspective of WLSs, extrinsic motivation has been shown to sig-
nificantly affect student participation (Fenwick & Olson, 1986; Saadé & Bahli, 2005). Further-
more, previous studies have reported that increased intrinsic motivation has been associated with
learners’ willingness to create positive attitudes, resulting in increased learning and inclination to
participate voluntarily (Saadé & Bahli, 2005). However, although several studies argue that moti-
vation factors are crucial determinants of learners’ behavioral intentions, there is no significant
body of empirical research that assesses the different roles of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in
influencing behavioral intentions to use WLSs and as experienced within a social context.
There has been a large number of research studies published on WLSs. These studies however are
all descriptive in nature and purely qualitative, presenting general accounts of students’ experi-
ences while taking an online course. An important number of these works were done using the
technology acceptance model (TAM) to understand individuals’ acceptance/adoption/intentions-
to-use various technologies (mobile, web-based, software, etc.). Considering the large body of
publications using the TAM, relatively few are in the domain of web-based learning (M. K. O.
Lee et al., 2005; Saadé, 2007; Saadé & Kira, in press; Straub, Keil, & Brenner, 1997; Taylor &
Todd, 1995). The viability of TAM to explain acceptance behavior of WLS has been confirmed
in Saadé, Nabebe, and Tan (2007).
Most literature on TAM studies indicate that the technology acceptance model has a dominant
emphasis on notions of instrumentality, focusing mainly on functional or extrinsic motivational
drivers, which is not necessarily a dominant construct in the context of WLSs (Agarwal & Kara-
hanna, 2000). Some recent studies have included intrinsic motivation constructs, representing a
student’s subjective feelings of joy, elation, pleasure, and positive holistic experience, as an im-
portant construct that may play a critical role in explaining user acceptance and usage behavior in
WLSs (M. K. O. Lee et al., 2005; Saadé & Bahli, 2005; Saadé et al., 2008).
It is generally agreed that TAM research should acknowledge cultural differences. Previous re-
search has indicated that values on information technology differ across cultural backgrounds
(Veiga, Kohno, & Potter, 2001) and that the power of different theories/models vary between cul-
tures (Straub et al., 1997). Although previous works have studied the relationship between IS us-
age satisfaction on their acceptance (Ives, Hamilton, & Davis, 1980), few have studied the role of
cultural factors in these relationships, and research in that domain is small and fragmented.
This study contributes to the advancement of the body of knowledge in the following ways:
1. The applicability of the technology acceptance model in the context of a Chinese student
group using a WLS in China,
2. The validation of the technology acceptance model with the inclusion of intrinsic motiva-
tion in two contexts, Chinese and Canadian Groups, and
3. The use of the theory of “cognitive systems of thought” (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Niren-
zayan, 2001) to explain ‘technology acceptance model’-based studies.
Theoretical Background
The theoretical background of our social-context/culture work draws on the theory of reasoned
action (the basis of the TAM (F. D. Davis, 1989)), intrinsic motivation and the cognitive-system-
of-thought for culture studies. We provide a brief review of these theories/concepts herein.
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The Technology Acceptance Model
The TAM proposes that perceived ease of use (PEU) and perceived usefulness (PU) influence
attitudes towards and, consequently, behavioral intentions (BI) to use a specific technology. In the
context of the present study, perceived ease of use refers to the degree to which a student believes
that using the WLS will be free from cognitive effort, whereas perceived usefulness can be de-
fined as the degree to which an individual believes that using the WLS will enhance his/her per-
formance in the course. The definition of PU in TAM can be viewed as a measure of outcome
expectations, which in the present case can lead to better grades. Similarly, the definition of PEU
in TAM can be viewed as a measure of perceived self-efficacy -- the extent to which the student
expects a specific system to be easy to learn and use (F. D. Davis, 1989; Venkatesh, 1999).
Therefore both PEU and PU could be considered as extrinsic motivational drivers.
Several studies have provided considerable support to the formulation of TAM in a web based
learning context where they affirm the validity of the influence of perceived ease of use and per-
ceived usefulness on students’ behavioral intention to use WLSs. Saadé and Bahli (2005), for ex-
ample, found that perceived usefulness of an internet-based learning system has a significant im-
pact on behavioral intention, and that perceived ease of use is a predictor of perceived usefulness
and behavioral intentions. Similar findings were replicated by Lee and colleagues (2005) in a
study of investigating roles of motivation on intentions to use an internet-based learning medium
and by Yi & Hwang (2003) in a study to extend the TAM in the context of a web-based class
management system.
The Motivation Dimension
Motivation is a key factor determining human behavior and action (Lin, 2007). An unmotivated
person feels no impetus or inspiration to act, whereas when he/she is engaged in some activities
toward an end, he/she is considered motivated. Some researchers suggest that individuals may
have different amounts, as well as different types of orientations of motivation (Deci, 1975). Two
broad classes of motivation – extrinsic and intrinsic – have been defined and examined across
various contexts and studies. Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity because
it leads to instrumental rewards (such as the PU in TAM) (Saadé, 2007; Venkatesh, 1999); intrin-
sic motivation refers to the performance of an activity for its inherent interests and enjoyment
other than a separable outcome (Deci, 1972).
The TAM mainly emphasizes extrinsic perspective (M. K. O. Lee et al., 2005) and only recently
researchers began to address the role of intrinsic motivation in TAM studies in order to provide a
broader view and a better explanation of IT adoption (Agarwal & Karahanna, 2000; Heijden,
2003; Hsu & Lu, 2004; Moon & Kim, 2001; Saadé & Bahli, 2005). The capturing of intrinsic mo-
tivation while using the WLS was found to be a significant predictor of outcomes related to its
use and acceptance (Ghani & Deshpande, 1994; Saade, 2007; Thompson, Higgins, & Howell,
1991).
A critical review of TAM performed by Lee and colleagues (2005) revealed that there is a need to
include other components, such as intrinsic motivation, for a better explanation of IT adoption.
More recently there has been an increase in studies of TAM and intrinsic motivation (Chung &
Tan, 2004; S. Davis & Wiedenbeck, 2001; M. K. O. Lee et al., 2005; Saadé, 2006; Saadé, 2007;
Saadé & Bahli, 2005; Teo, Lim, & Laia, 1999; Venkatesh, Speier, & Morris, 2002; Yi & Huang,
2003). Enjoyment, which has been defined as the extent to which the activity of using a computer
system (in the present context, the WLS) is perceived to be personally enjoyable in its own right
aside from the instrumental value of the technology (F. D. Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992),
could be regarded as a form of intrinsic motivation. The effect of enjoyment on PEU and inten-
tions has been recently studied (Yi & Huang, 2003), but the effect of enjoyment on perceived use-
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Role of Intrinsic Motivation in System Adoption
fulness remains unknown. Venkatesh & Davis (2000) showed that enjoyment influenced useful-
ness via ease of use, without assessing its direct effect.
The above considerations lead us to the notion that PU is a construct of enhancement, which can
be considered as a measure of extrinsic motivation, while enjoyment, which can be also viewed
as a construct of enhancement, is a measure of intrinsic motivation.
The Social Context Dimension and TAM
Culture is a complex, multidimensional construct that can be studied from international, national,
regional, business, and organizational perspectives. Each individual (within a specific culture) is
influenced by cultural factors such as ethnic, organizational, and national (Duart & Snyder,
2001). Culture has been defined as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes
the members of one group or category of people from another” (Hofstede, 1991). Two frame-
works that define culture according to a small number of dimensions (Hall, 1983; Hofstede, 1991)
have been studied in the past two decades, but neither of these seems sufficient to capture the
complexity of the cultural context where it is implied that few dimensions can explain beliefs and
values. But there is a paucity of articles in this area, and a review of these studies is found in Sha-
chaf, (2008).
Very little previous empirical research on the use of WLSs for online learning has addressed cul-
tural diversity. Researchers have identified differences in technology use and perception of task
technology fit between eastern and western cultures (O. Lee, 2002; Massey, Hung, Montoya-
Weiss, & Ramesh, 2001). Some of their findings are: different patterns of e-mail use and signifi-
cant differences in the perception of task technology fit between virtual team members from the
United States, Asia, and Europe.
A culture theory developed one decade after Hofstede’s (1991) was proposed by Nisbett and col-
leagues (2001). They proposed a theory of how systems of thought arise on the basis of differing
cultural practices. More importantly to our study, and hence our interest in their theory, is that
they argue that the theory accounts for substantial differences in East Asian and Western thought
processes. The assumption of universality of cognitive processes across cultures and the applica-
tion of this assumption to the computer had been adopted by mainstream psychology of the 20th
century (Nisbett et al., 2001). This assumption presumes that information processing such as ca-
tegorization, reasoning, and inductive and deductive inferencing is the same among all human
groups (Nisbett et al., 2001).
In their article Nisbett and colleagues (2001) found East Asians to be more holistic, attending to
the entire field and assigning causality to it, making relatively little use of categories and formal
logic and relying on “dialectical” reasoning. Westerners however, were found to be more ana-
lytic, paying attention primarily to the object and the categories to which it belongs and using
rules, including formal logic, to understand its behavior.
In their article, Nisbett and colleagues (2001) elaborate that the ways at which inferential rules
and reasoning are followed appear to be malleable. Significant differences were found to exist in
knowledge of the use of inferential rules and cognitive processes. Cognitive processes were found
to be embedded into the social fabric of different world views and social behavior of different
cultures. An example (although limited in its generalizability) would be the Chinese and Greek
cultures. While Greeks (that may represent western cultures) emphasize individualism, Chinese
perceive themselves as part of a closely knit collective group whose primary need is the recipro-
cal social obligation and meeting the expectations of the group (Munro, 1985).
Of importance to our work, we consider these cognitive differences under the label of holistic and
analytic thought (Nisbett et al., 2001; Peng & Nisbett, 1999). Holistic thought is defined as in-
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Saadé, Nebebe, & Mak
volving an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationships be-
tween a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the
basis of such relationships. Holistic approaches rely on experience-based knowledge rather than
abstract logic and are dialectical, meaning that there is an emphasis on change, recognition of
contradiction and the need for multiple perspectives, and a search for the “middle way” between
opposing propositions. Analytic thought, on the other hand, is defined as involving detachment of
the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to
categories, and a preference for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s
behavior (Nisbett et al., 2001). Holistic thought can be considered associative and its computa-
tions reflect similarity and contiguity, while analytic thought recruits symbolic representational
system and its computations reflect rule structure (Sloman, 1996; Witkin et al., 1974), or “rational
cause and effect paradigm to create perceptions” (Brown, 2002).
In relation to the social context/cultural perspective of our study, the purpose was to investigate
how cultural diversity (specifically between Canadian and Chinese students) within WLS experi-
ences impacted motivations and beliefs — whether the effect of cultural diversity on the relation-
ship between motivation and beliefs was reduced, similar, or amplified. More specifically, we
hoped to answer the question:
“How does cultural diversity (Canadian and Chinese students) using a WLS influence the
relationship between motivation and beliefs?”
Methodology
Research Model and Hypotheses
Figure 1 presents the proposed research model used in this study. This model introduces the as-
pect of intrinsic motivation into the TAM. Although reviewed in the previous section, we briefly
contextualize the research model constructs here. Perceived usefulness is defined as a student’s
expectation that using the WLS will enhance his/her course performance (F. D. Davis, 1989).
From the motivational perspective, since a student’s behavior comes from his/her expectation
from performance outcome, it represents an extrinsic factor (F. D. Davis et al., 1992). Using the
WLS, students can access and download course materials freely, practice domain specific ques-
tions interactively, and compare their efforts and performance with the student group, using the
web from any location. Thus, it could be expected that students would believe in a use-
performance relationship with the WLS.
Based on Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1986), PEU is related to self-efficacy by capturing
student’s beliefs about their ability to perform the required task with the least cognitive burden (F.
D. Davis et al., 1992). When students’ assessment of their interaction with the system is relatively
easy (free of cognitive burden), one would expect that they would perceive the WLS useful and
would have the intention to spend time and effort to carry out the learning tasks.
Intrinsic motivation supports the idea that students will spend more time and effort using the
WLS if they are enjoying the activity. In this study intrinsic motivation is measured in terms of
enjoyment representing a reward apart from any performance consequences that may be antici-
pated (F. D. Davis et al., 1992). Venkatesh and colleagues (2002) suggest that intrinsically moti-
vated computer users have a tendency for lower perception of difficulty associated with using a
new technology. Enjoyment seems to decrease the perception of effort to use a specific technol-
ogy. Based on the above discussion we posit the following hypotheses and research model:
H1:
Intrinsic motivation will have a positive influence on perceived ease of use
H2:
Intrinsic motivation will have a positive influence on perceived usefulness
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Role of Intrinsic Motivation in System Adoption
H3:
Intrinsic motivation will have positive influence on behavioral intention

Original TAM hypotheses:
H4:
Perceived ease of use will have a positive influence on perceived usefulness
H5:
Perceived usefulness will have a positive influence on behavioral intention
H6:
Perceived ease of use will have a positive influence on behavioral intention

TAM 
Perceived
Ease-of-Use: PEU
H 1
H 4
H 2
H 3
Perceived
Intrinsic Motiva-
Usefulness: PU
H 6
tion: IM
(Extrinsic Motivation)
H 5
H 3
Behavioral
Intention: BI

Figure 1. Proposed research model.
The Web-based Learning Management System
Two universities participated in this study; one in Canada and the other in China. Each university
used a different WLS. However, they both had the following common features:
• Common course subject of ‘management information systems’
• The use of a web-based system to manage a course
• The use of the Internet by students to practice multiple choice questions
• Immediate feedback provided
• The use of the system was throughout the course
• Both WLSs (Canada and China) were developed primarily as a simple hyperlinked
environment
Detailed information about the system used in China (such as screen captures) were not done.
Each WLS was in its own language (Chinese in China and English in Canada). The WLS used in
Canada (Saadé, 2003) included a multiple choice (MCQ) practice engine used for rehearsing con-
tent domain knowledge. As shown in Figure 2, the student is first asked to input his/her user
name and password. The student then enters the main panel of the course where the system
guided navigation tool is found. The student follows a three-step process of pre-assessment, prac-
tice, and post-assessment. The practice engine randomly selects a set of 5 questions at a time and
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Saadé, Nebebe, & Mak
presents them to the student. Multiple-choice and true or false questions are used. Once the stu-
dent answers the questions, he/she can submit the answers for evaluation and feedback. The stu-
dent then can request another set of questions and so on. At the end of the interactive session, the
student can request a report, proceed to the post-assessment test, or exit the system. The student
has the flexibility to decide when he/she is ready to take the post-assessment test.
Request questions set
for specified topic
Includes questions and
correct answers
Randomize from
• Multiple Choice
pool of questions
• True or False
Questions
database
Prompt student
Submit answers to
with questions
questions
Student
performance
Process
database
Answers
Request
Report
Student
Report

Figure 2. Practice question engine.
In the present context, the design of the learning tool includes a limited number of questions for
each chapter. For example, Chapter 1 includes 38 questions while Chapter 2 may include 112.
Students are presented with a set of five questions at a time. After that the five questions are an-
swered, the student can click on ‘evaluate’ and the system will show the correct/wrong answer
with a green/red button on the side of each question. The student can then click on ‘next’ to re-
quest another randomized set of questions. This design allows the repetition of the questions,
combined with immediate feedback requiring the use of short-term memory, recognition, and re-
collection skills. A second attempt to answer a question reinforces the students’ understanding of
the question and of the concept at hand regardless of the outcome of the question the first time it
was answered. Students are asked to do a minimum of 20 questions but encouraged to do as many
as they feel necessary. They are asked to develop their own strategies for using this tool and are
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Role of Intrinsic Motivation in System Adoption
allowed to practice in groups and refer to any resource. The objective is more to have them en-
gaged in processing domain content rather than to test them.
Survey
A survey (shown in Table 1 below) was administered at two universities, one in China and the
other in Canada. In both countries, students of a business college taking a core business course
were asked to use a simple WLS to help them understand content material and rehearse for ques-
tions that may appear in the midterm and final exams. A total of 362 users in Canada and 120
students in China completed the survey.
All the items used to measure the constructs were adapted from prior studies with modification to
fit the specific context of the WLS. Both PU and PEU are measured by four items (adapted from
F. D. Davis, 1989), while two items are used to measure behavioral intention (adapted from
Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Intrinsic motivation is measured using three items (adapted from F. D.
Davis et al., 1992). All items used a five-point Likert-type scale with anchors from “Strongly dis-
agree” to “Strongly agree”.
Table 1: Items used in the survey
Construct
Item
Measure
Perceived Usefulness (PU)
PU1
Using the web-based learning system would improve my per-
formance in the course
PU2
Using the web-based learning system in the course would in-
crease my productivity
PU3
Using the web-based learning system would enhance my effec-
tiveness in the course

PU4
I would find the web-based learning system useful in my study
Perceived Ease of Use (PEU)
PEU1
Learning to operate the web-based learning system would be
easy for me
PEU2
I would find it easy to get the web-based learning system to do
what I want it to do
PEU3
It would be easy for me to become skillful at using the web-
based learning system

PEU4
I would find the web-based learning system easy to use
Behavioral Intention (BI)
BI1
I intend to take more courses using the web-based learning sys-
tem in the future

BI2
I intend to show others this web-based learning system
Intrinsic Motivation
IM1
I find the web-based learning system enjoyable
IM2
The actual process of using the web-based learning system was
pleasant

IM3
I had fun using the web-based learning system
Instrument Validity
In this study, we separately analyzed the two datasets in a two-step analytical procedure. We first
examined the measurement model and then the structural model. The measurement model was
assessed in terms of convergent validity, internal consistency, and discriminant validity. The
structural model and hypotheses were investigated by examining the path coefficients represented
as standardized betas, ?. The explained variance in the dependent constructs was assessed as an
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Saadé, Nebebe, & Mak
indication of the overall predictive strength of the model. The measurement model results were
reproduced by LISREL, version 8.3.
Convergent validity (Table 2) represents the extent to which the indicators of a measurement are
theoretically related and should correlate highly (Gefen & Straub, 2005). A composite reliability
of 0.7 or above and an average variance extracted (AVE) of greater than 0.7 are acceptable (For-
nell & Larcker, 1981). In addition, we introduced Cronbach’s alpha to test reliability. All statisti-
cal measures were calculated for both datasets separately, since the data for each group is to be
analyzed separately, and then compared. Table 2 summarizes the above parameters in our models
for each group. All the measures fulfill the recommended levels, with the composite reliabilities
higher than 0.9, AVE ranges from 0.70 to 0.89. In both cases, alpha was greater than 0.7 for all
constructs, thus demonstrating reliability.
Table 2. Reliability and Convergent validity
Construct
Composite Reliability
AVE
Cronbach Alpha
China(CN)
Canada(CA)
CN CA
CN CA
BI
0.91 0.93
0.83
0.87
0.79
0.85
PU
0.92 0.94
0.75
0.81
0.89
0.92
PEU
0.90 0.94
0.70
0.89
0.86
0.88
IM
0.92 0.94
0.79
0.79
0.86
0.91

Discriminant validity is the extent to which the measure is not a reflection of some other variable.
Discriminant validity is validated when two things happen: (1) the squared root of the average
variance extracted for each construct is higher than the correlation between it and all other con-
structs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981); and (2) if items have factor loading greater than 0.5 on their
own construct, and much less than their loading on other constructs. When both cases occur then
discriminant validity is supported (Gefen & Straub, 2005). All the measures for discriminant va-
lidity were calculated higher than the recommended levels.
Findings
The research model and hypothesized relationships were empirically tested by using the structural
equation modeling (SEM) approach, supported by LISREL 8.3 software. The findings of this
study provide a theoretical basis and empirical evidence of likely directions for explaining moti-
vation in cultural type of studies. From a managerial perspective, given the importance of WLS in
contemporary higher education institutions, the findings herein are designed to enable designers
and policy-makers to formulate appropriate processes to ensure the effective and efficient devel-
opment and use of WLSs.
The Structural Model
The structural equation model results are illustrated in Figure 3 in two parts: (3a) shows the re-
sults to validate the TAM without IM, for both cultures and (3b) shows the results of the proposed
research model hypotheses. Each hypothesis was studied by considering the path coefficients, ?.
The estimated path effects (represented by the coefficient ?) are given along with their degree of
significance, p. In Figures 3a and 3b, the results are presented by identifying the hypotheses as
defined in the proposed research model (Figure 1). The hypotheses results are superimposed in
Figures 3a and 3b and are presented in three lines as follows:
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Role of Intrinsic Motivation in System Adoption
H#
Ex. H4 : hypotheses 4
?#= ? Canada/ ? china
Ex. ?4 = 0.67/0.63 : Path coefficient ? for hypothesis 4
with value for Canada group = 0.67 and value for China
group = 0.63
T-value=Tcanada(pcanada)/Tchina(pchina)
Ex. T-Value = 9.94(p=0.001)/7.95(p=0.001) : The T-
statistics value for Canada group is 9.94 with significance of
0.001 and for China group is 7.95 with significance of
0.001.

Figure 3a shows the TAM portion of the
proposed research model represented by
hypotheses 4 (PEU PU), 5 (PU BI) and
6 (PEU BI). This figure shows positive
significant correlations between the con-
structs thereby suggesting that there were
grounds for expecting significant effects
between them. Hypothesis 4 shows that
there is a strong positive relationship be-
tween PEU and PU for both cultures (? =
0.67 for Canada and ? = 0.63 for China).
The strength of this relationship for both
cultures is nearly the same magnitude. Hy-
pothesis 5 showed a positive relationship
between PU and BI with the same strength

for both Canada and China (? = 0.27), al-
Figure 3a. TAM model for both cultures
though the relationships is not statistically
significant for the Chinese sample.
Hypothesis 6 tested the relationship between PEU and BI. The results shown in Figure 3a indicate
that this relationship is approximately 25% less strong for Canada (? = 0.51) than that for China
(? = 0.74). Therefore, all TAM hypotheses are supported for both cultures (Figure 3a) with the
exception of H5 for China.
Figure 3b illustrates the SEM results of the proposed research model for both cultures. This figure
shows the influence of IM on TAM. In other words, we can look at how H4, H5, and H6 (from
Figure 3a) changed due to the introduction of IM. Additionally, the results in Figure 3b are used
to test the proposed model fit to both cultures.

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