Theories of learning and curriculum design Key positionalities and their relationships

Theories of learning and curriculum design
Key positionalities and their relationships

Tony Cunningham, Julie Gannon, Mary Kavanagh, John Greene,
Louise Reddy, Laurence Whitson

Foreword
One of the challenges academics face when designing pedagogies and curricula is
how best to articulate their own positionalities regarding the different ways theories or
models of learning inform both the process of design as well as the product. It is
difficult to find a text book or design resource that illustrates the relationships
between the main theories of learning and how they might inform a coherent approach
to programme design in higher education. For that reason we decided to produce this
summative guide to learning theories and a chart illustrating their relevance for
pedagogies and for curriculum design.

The guide starts with our agreed glossary of terms which are used to structure
both the text and the chart. We then briefly describe the five main models of learning
used in the chart: behaviourist, humanist, information processing, activity and
situated.

We hope the reader will find the text and the chart useful in generating
structured discussion when facing a major pedagogical or curriculum design task.

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Explanation of terms
Epistemology
Describes different assumptions regarding the nature of knowledge and alternative
perspectives of how knowledge is understood.
Origin of learning goals
Refers to the identification of the locus for learning to be achieved by the student and
is closely linked to motivation and stimulus. A learning goal is the type of learning
one hopes to achieve consistent with the nature of discipline being taught.
Motivation
The influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of learning. This
may be intrinsic or extrinsically driven.
Learning theory
Each model stems from one or more theories of learning. A learning theory is a set of
principles that explains and relates certain learning phenomena.
Theorists
Individuals strongly associated with each model or whose theory of learning can be
situated within a given model.
Learning and teaching approach
Describes the learning tendency likely to be adopted by the student within a particular
learning model that emanates from the teaching approach promoted by the lecturer.
Importance of environment
The domain where learning occurs – in some cases the environment may be
considered critical to student learning. In contrast, some models place less emphasis
on the environment and more on inherited traits and experience.
Importance of external stimulus
Determines whether an external driver is necessary within the environment for
learning to take place.
Methods of learning
Describes how learning is manifested within a particular environment and identifies
the source of the impetus for the learner.

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Dependency
Identifies the dependencies that may exist for the learner within particular learning
models.
Pedagogical approach
The teaching approach applied to a specific learning environment and the nature of
learning that exists within that particular environment.
Learning approach
Refers to the scope of learning provided to the learner within a particular learning
environment.
Thinking process
Highlights thought processes likely to be adopted as learning occurs. They may be
specific or a fusion of different processes.
Type of learning
Identifies the extent of group, team or peer learning within a particular model.
Type of model
Identifies whether the learning theory adopts an objective, process or capability
model.
Metaphor/s of learning
Describes the different perspectives on how learning occurs within a particular model.
Implications for Higher Education
Efficacy and relevance of pedagogical approaches derived from learning models and
their value when considered in the context of higher education.


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Positionality and theories of learning

Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to augment the learning theory schema presented in
Reece and Walker (2000: 118–121). Five broad models of learning are presented in
the attached chart detailing learning theories that influence current education and
learning practice. The matrix may be used as a framework providing an overview of
each theory’s concepts and processes of learning. Each model posits assumptions of
how knowledge is understood and created. All of the models are briefly discussed
under the same headings used in the matrix as a means of providing further
clarification on the differences and similarities between each of the models.

An explanation of terms provides a contextual definition of the headings used
in the schema to examine each model (see left hand column of chart).

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Behaviourist model
Epistemology
Behaviourist theory asserts that knowledge is finite. Learning is said to be overt,
observable and measurable using empirical methods.This contributes to the belief that
learning is observable through changes in behaviour of the learner.
Origin of learning goals
Goals are prescribed. Specific stimuli are introduced within a controlled environment
to trigger appropriate learning to achieve specific goals. The lecturer controls stimuli
introduced into the learning environment and dictates goals that will be achieved in
response to these stimuli.
Motivation
Learning is influenced by external factors, as opposed to internal thought processes of
intrinsic motivation. Learning is rewarded to encourage desirable results. Extrinsic
motivation drives students to do things for tangible rewards or pressures. Undesirable
behaviour is ignored or punished to avoid reoccurrence. It is the prospect of receiving
positive reward that drives learning, such as passing an exam i.e. external motivation.
Learning theory
There is a focus on physical behaviour that can be observed, controlled and measured.
Thought processes fall outside the remit of the controlled environment and are
therefore of little or no concern. Learning occurs where specific stimuli are introduced
to the learner causing certain responses to occur which result in a change in
behaviour. Learning usually takes place in incremental steps and can be increased
through repetition and reinforcement. A teacher (or organisation) determines what
objectives the learner should achieve. These objectives are said to be met when the
learner responds in a certain way, based on controlled stimuli.
Theorists
Major contributors to behaviourist theory include the following.
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949)
Thorndike conducted experiments with animals that greatly influenced the
development of behaviourist theory. Thorndike believed that learning was a process
of linking physical and mental events in various combinations. He developed the

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theory of connectionism. Here, learning is enhanced when bonds are made between
the stimulus and the response. These bonds were formed over time through trial and
error. He also formulated a number of ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ laws about the
learning process.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990)
Skinner was seen as a radical behaviourist and conducted a lot of research in the area
of ‘operant conditioning’. This form of conditioning is similar to the work conducted
by Thorndike where repetition and positive reinforcement enhance learning.
Robert Gagne (1916–2002)
The influence of behaviourism can be seen in Gagne’s work. He developed his own
theory on ‘Conditions of learning’ that outlines nine events of instruction that can be
used to induce learning.
Learning and teaching approach
The approach is serialist. Learning takes place in manageable steps with each stimulus
producing a specific result. The process of acquiring knowledge progresses in a
linear, step-by-step approach. Students tackle a subject step-by-step, building from the
known to the unknown with the simplest possible connections between different items
of knowledge.
Importance of environment
Learning only occurs in the controlled environment where appropriate conditions can
be maintained to condition the learner. The behaviourist assumption is that human
beings are passive and therefore any inherited dispositions, traits or ideas are
unimportant and not considered part of the learning process.
Importance of external stimulus
Without the appropriate stimuli desired learning will not occur. Motivation for
learning occurs solely in response to the introduction of certain stimuli. For example,
if a student knows that they will be tested on the information they are given in class
the response will be to acquire this knowledge in order to successfully pass the exam.
Methods of learning
Stimulus response is required for learning to occur. The learner takes a passive role
and the teacher an active role. The teacher determines goals, appropriate stimuli to

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achieve those goals and an appropriate sequence for delivery. The learner is required
to respond to the stimuli. The lecturer then provides opportunities within the
environment for repetition and reinforcement to enhance learning and the response
rate.
Dependency
The student relies on the lecturer to provide the appropriate environment for learning
to take place. The lecturer provides incentives to motivate students.
Pedagogical approach
The approach is teacher centered. The lecturer makes all decisions regarding the
learning process. Issues such as control over the remit of knowledge, how knowledge
is assimilated, and the evaluation of students’ performances remain the sole
responsibility of the lecturer.
Learning approach
Students are passive and receive information from the lecturer. They are not required
to engage with the learning but demonstrate through exams, etc. that knowledge has
been acquired. Students are not required to take ownership of their own learning since
they are not required to make any decisions in relation to the process.
Thinking process
This is highly deductive where thought processes adopted by students follow a logical
sequence of reasoning. Students may be presented with a problem or task and then
shown the steps to adopt in order to solve the problem or carry out that task.
Type of learning
Interaction is not a requirement as learning revolves around the individual’s ability to
respond positively to incentives provided by the lecturer.
Type of model
The model is objective. It can be easily evaluated, as the required learning is
observable and can be measured.
Metaphor/s of learning
Acquisition of knowledge is a key feature of student learning, i.e. a student must
demonstrate they have acquired information provided by the lecturer. Students may
also be expected to reproduce what they have been shown, for instance in a class

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demonstration or experiment. Acquiring a particular skill may be achieved by
imitating how the lecturer performs this skill and then replicating it until the required
standard or competency has been achieved. Modelling is another method associated
with learning. Here, students may be expected to model a behaviour or approach
within a specified framework.
Implications for Higher Education
Learning exists in a traditional didactic format where the lecturer is seen as the expert
disseminating their knowledge, that is to say the lecturer adopts a largely instructional
approach. This is often visible within training courses and apprenticeship where the
student follows the lead provided by the lecturer.

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Humanist model
Epistemology
Humanist theory posits a natural desire of individuals to learn. Knowledge is deemed
infinite with limitless possibilities. The potential for growth of an individual learner is
considered boundless. Learners need to be empowered and to have control over the
learning process and not to have learning ‘done’ to them
Origin of learning goals
The learner is driven by their wish to improve their own understanding and abilities
and in doing so develops their own knowledge. Feelings are as important as facts.
Students learn best in a non-threatening environment and are more likely to want to
identify their own goals that are specific to their needs.
Motivation
The theory asserts that human beings are innately driven to learn. Motivation is
intrinsic, i.e. it comes from within the learner in their attempt to improve themselves.
This natural inclination towards learning is the internal driver. Insights and the
learner's own experiences are said to encourage reflection and self-assessment.
Learning theory
Learning is considered in relation to the learner’s unlimited potential for growth. The
individual drives learning in an attempt to reach self-actualisation. Learners are
encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning. Sometimes this is described
as 'facilitation learning theory' where learning is seen to occur through the educator
acting as a facilitator, who establishes a supportive environment enabling learners to
consider new ideas.
Theorists
Major contributors to humanist theory include the following.
John Dewey (1859–1952)
Dewey was a member of the functionalist movement and rejected the behaviourist
model of stimulus response. He was interested in areas such as education for
democracy and the role of reflection within the educational process. He believed
human interaction with the world contributed to learning as part of a self-guided
discovery.

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Alexander Sutherland Neill (1883–1973)
Neill’s primary interest lay with the education of the whole person, and like many
humanists he felt that the behaviourist view of the human being was fundamentally
flawed. He founded Summerhill School where education focused on developing
qualities of self-esteem and self worth.
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
Rogers believed that humans had a natural tendency to be good and deviations from
this presented themselves as distortions in nature. He was interested in self-
actualisation associated with the desire to improve and develop.
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
Maslow’s most notable work is associated with his theory on a hierarchy of 'basic
needs' and his research on motivation. This developed out of research where he
identified that some needs take precedence over others.
Learning and teaching approach
The approach is holist. Learning is viewed as an entire experience with insights
gained through reflection and critical inquiry. It is not purely about acquisition of
knowledge but the overall development of a person.
Importance of environment
While the environment and how the learner reacts with it are recognised as part of the
learning experience, the learner’s own insights and experiences are said to play a
more dominant role in the overall learning process.
Importance of external stimulus
There is no stimulus required for learning to take place as learners take charge of their
own learning needs. An innate desire to enhance knowledge, skills and competencies
is said to be the central driving force in development.
Methods of learning
The learner is involved at all stages. It is important that the learning process addresses
student needs. Self-analysis and evaluation are useful tools that enable the learner to
reflect on their own experience. The lecturer may be seen to extract lessons from the
learner with the use of inquiry to help students find out for themselves what is
important.

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