Transaction costs and forest management
t potential
carbon offse
WORKING PAPER
Christopher S. Galik * § Justin S. Baker * † Joseph L. Grinnell ‡
Climate Change Policy Partnership
Duke University July 2009
* Climate Change Policy Partnership, Duke University
† Duke University Center on Global Change and PhD Candidate, Texas A&M University
‡ M.E.M. Candidate, Nicholas School of the Environment
§ Corresponding author: christopher.galik@duke.edu; +919.681.7193
Transaction costs and forest management carbon offset potential acknowledgements…
The authors would like to thank Matt Smith, Tim Pearson, Tim Foley, Kate Claflin, Brian Murray, Lydia
Olander, Gordon Smith, and Congnan Zhan for their assistance in the preparation of this paper and the
underlying model. Assistance does not necessarily imply endorsement, and any errors remain the sole
responsibility of the authors.
author’s note…
At the time of publication, the Climate Action Reserve (CAR) forestry protocol was in the final stages of
revision. This paper reflects version 2.1 of the protocol (issued September 2007). The analysis will be
updated and reposted once the new CAR forestry protocol is finalized.
Climate Change Policy Partnership
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Transaction costs and forest management carbon offset potential Abstract
Transaction costs are one of the key challenges that private forest landowners may face in participating
in emerging carbon markets. As most forestlands in the United States occur in the form of small,
privately held landholdings, the supply of forest carbon offsets could be constrained by high transaction
costs. Using a custom spreadsheet model, this study examines the transaction costs of different forest
offset projects operating in different forest types under different accounting methodologies or
protocols. Our results suggest that transaction costs can be significant for small forest management
offset projects. We find that transaction costs likewise vary by protocol and tend to decrease with
project size and length of rotation extension. While transaction costs can be an important driver in total
project revenue, they appear to be less of a factor than the actual accounting scheme under which the
project is being operated.
1. Introduction
Domestic forests represent a significant carbon sink (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2008).
Interest in the role that forests will play in climate change mitigation has prompted research into the
potential of forest carbon sequestration for nearly two decades (Richards and Stokes 2004; Stavins and
Richards 2005). In particular, studies examining the costs of forest carbon sequestration have become
more sophisticated over the years in deriving marginal cost curves at national or regional scales. The
amount of carbon sequestration yielded by a given amount of investment, however, gives little insight
into transaction costs,1 especially at the project level. As transaction costs are one of the key challenges
that private forest landowners are likely to face in participating in emerging carbon markets (Gunn et al.
2008), this shortcoming is potentially significant. Most forestlands in the United States occur in the form
of small, privately held landholdings (Butler 2008), implying that the supply of forest carbon offsets
could be constrained by high transaction costs.
The role that transaction costs play in offset project implementation has been the subject of a number
of analyses in recent years (e.g., Antinori and Sathaye 2007; Bilek et al. 2009; Brown et al. 2004; Mooney
et al. 2004). The effect that accounting procedure– or protocol‐specific methodologies and approaches
have on transaction costs and overall project feasibility has received considerably less attention.
Research suggests that differences in offset protocols can lead to a wide variation in the carbon credits
that can be claimed by a forest landowner (Galik et al. 2008; Pearson et al. 2008; Galik et al.
forthcoming). Large differences also exist across protocols with regard to measuring, monitoring, and
verification requirements. Ultimately, these requirements can influence a project’s break‐even carbon
price, i.e., the price required for the project to achieve net positive returns. The influence of offset
protocol structure on creditable carbon generation and transaction costs also implies that accounting
methodology can strongly influence project feasibility and the corresponding level of engagement in
carbon markets by forest landowners (Galik et al.
forthcoming). As forest management has the potential
to be a rapidly deployable and low‐cost domestic greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation strategy (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency 2005), it is vital that policymakers understand the potential cost and
supply implications of forest offset standards development.
The analysis that follows expands upon earlier research on the variation of forest management carbon
offset protocols (Galik et al. 2008; Galik et al.
forthcoming) to better document the transaction cost
1 As used here, transaction costs are broadly defined as the costs required to design, implement, and monitor an
offset project, as well as the costs of measuring, verifying, and registering the greenhouse gas benefits that result.
Climate Change Policy Partnership
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Transaction costs and forest management carbon offset potential component of forest management offset projects. This information can then be applied to studies of
aggregate supply, yielding increasingly accurate predictions of forest management offset contributions
to national GHG mitigation efforts. It can also provide project participants with a better understanding
of the various factors that could ultimately influence project feasibility.
2. Methods
This analysis is based on an extension of the spreadsheet tool developed in Galik et al. 2008 in which a
hypothetical forest management offset project is operated under multiple accounting methodologies or
protocols for a period of 100 years. The tool quantifies annual gross forest carbon sequestration, then
applies a baseline and adjustments for leakage, uncertainty, and other discounts pursuant to the
relevant protocols. In all, five forest management offset protocols are considered here:
2 • U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) 1605(b) Technical Guidelines for Voluntary Reporting of
Greenhouse Gases (Office of Policy and International Affairs 2007);
• Georgia Forestry Commission (GFC) Carbon Sequestration Registry Project Protocol (Georgia
Forestry Commission 2007);
• Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) Sustainably Managed Forests/Long‐Lived Wood Products
Protocols (Chicago Climate Exchange 2007b; Chicago Climate Exchange 2007a);
• Climate Action Reserve (CAR) Forest Project Protocol (Climate Action Reserve 2007); and
• Voluntary Carbon Standard (VCS) Improved Forest Management Protocol (Voluntary Carbon
Standard 2007a; Voluntary Carbon Standard 2007b).
A full discussion of the methodology used to calculate the carbon sequestration generated under each
of the above protocols can be found in Galik et al. 2008. The present version of the spreadsheet model
differs from the one utilized in that report, most notably with regard to the inclusion of a transaction
cost component, scalable project sizes, and multiple forest types. These expansions and modifications
are further described below.
2.1. Analysis of National Forest Types3
The spreadsheet tool developed here is capable of examining protocol performance across 46 separate
regional forest types, in addition to the data set from the Calhoun Experimental Forest in South Carolina
originally used in Galik et al. 2008 (see Table 2 for a full list of the forest types and regions included).
Gross forest carbon sequestration for the live tree, standing deadwood, down deadwood, understory,
and forest floor pools4 in these additional forest types is determined based on yield curves for each
2 Galik et al. 2008 also considered a protocol based on a draft recommendation to the Regional Greenhouse Gas
Initiative (Maine Forest Service et al. 2008) and another based on
Harnessing Farms and Forests in the Low‐Carbon
Economy (Willey & Chameides 2007). These protocols are not considered here due to limited implementation
experience and the large number of assumptions that would have been necessary to estimate transaction costs.
3 As opposed to the Calhoun Experimental Forest data set, the values reported for these additional forest types
should not be interpreted as specific to any particular site index, stand composition, topographic position,
management history, or other site‐specific characteristic as the underlying equations were derived from stands
with widely varying site conditions and management regimes.
4 Galik et al. 2008 includes soil carbon in the assessment of differences between protocols. Soil is, however,
excluded in the analysis of national forest types due to the potential variability from site to site, as well as the
small changes expected with continuous forest management (see Foley 2009).
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Transaction costs and forest management carbon offset potential forest type and Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA)‐derived ecosystem‐level equations (Foley 2009, as
based on Smith and Heath 2002 and Smith et al. 2006). As with the original analysis based on the
Calhoun data set, the project assessed here consists of a 100‐year‐long rotation extension project
conducted across 10 stands of equal size. Default business‐as‐usual (BAU) rotations for each forest type
are based on harvest ages as indicated in
Appendix C of Smith et al. 2006, while project rotation lengths
are selected by the user. The model then regulates the new rotation so as to evenly space harvest
activity. Following rotation extension, the initial harvest in each stand occurs at the midpoint between
the BAU rotation and the new project rotation, after which the full project rotation length is
implemented for all subsequent rotations. Annualized carbon storage is then determined for all
protocols as described in Galik et al. 2008. A constant leakage value and buffer deduction of 10% is used
for VCS under all forest type scenarios, although we acknowledge that actual values are likely to be
influenced by forest type or region.
2.2. Assessment of Transaction Costs High and low values for key transaction cost parameters were derived from project‐related reports and
personal communication (Table 1). Because of the inherent scale‐dependency of many of the costs
affecting offset projects (e.g., Mooney et al. 2004), the spreadsheet model is scalable, allowing project
sizes of 100, 1,000, or 10,000 hectares to be considered. Costs were applied to each protocol based on
stated project establishment and ongoing project implementation requirements, described in detail
below. To provide a benchmark to the relative financial performance of each offset protocol, a BAU,
timber‐only alternative was also considered. The calculation of multiple metrics, including the break‐
even carbon price required to match the Net Present Value (NPV) of a non‐offset project alternative,
average per‐hectare transaction costs, and transaction costs expressed in units of dollars per metric ton
CO2e, is described below.
2.2.1. Application of transaction costs to specific protocols All projects (including BAU, timber‐only project alternative). Both the BAU, timber‐only project and the
hypothetical rotation extension offset project share common components. In both, startup costs include
site preparation, conducting of inventory, preparation of a management plan, and regeneration or
replanting costs. Timber inventories and management plans are assumed to be updated every 20 years.
Ongoing implementation costs include site maintenance and costs associated with marking and
administering harvests. The amount of timber generated at each harvest is determined according to
methodology described in Galik et al. 2008 (for Calhoun Experimental Forest data) and Foley 2009 (for
all other forest types). Property tax and tax on the sale of timber, while potentially significant, are not
included here due to the inherent complexity and site‐specificity of each. The costs and benefits of third‐
party certification (e.g., Forest Stewardship Council, Sustainable Forestry Initiative, American Tree Farm
System) and easement establishment can also influence project costs, but are likewise excluded here for
the same reasons. These latter exclusions may particularly affect CCX (certification required), CAR
(easement required), and GFC (easement optional).5
5 In addition to direct costs of easement establishment and certification, there are other potential costs or barriers
that are not evaluated here. For instance, perpetual easement requirements may carry prohibitively high
opportunity costs. Access to capital may limit the ability of small landowners to fund initial stages of project
development or implementation.
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Table 1. Values of key transaction cost parameters for projects of 247, 2,470, and 24,700 acres (100, 1,000, and 10,000 hectares).
Project Size 247 ac (100 ha)2,470 ac (1,000 ha)24,700 ac (10,000 ha) LowHighLowHighLowHighR
eference; NotesProject Establishment (timber and carbon)
Site Preparation (acre‐1)
$0.00
$200.00
$0.00
$200.00
$0.00
$200.00
A
Inventory (acre‐1)
$5.00
$35.00
$5.00
$10.00
$3.00
$8.00
B
Management Plan Preparation (acre‐1)
$0.00
$30.00
$0.00
$15.00
$0.00
$3.00
B
Planting Costs (acre‐1)
$0.00
$250.00
$0.00
$250.00
$0.00
$250.00
A (low); C (high)
Project Establishment (carbon only)
Carbon Project Development (acre‐1)
$0.00
$20.00
$0.00
$5.00
$0.00
$0.65
B; Includes scoping fees, planning, project
documentation
Pre‐project calculations, analyses (acre‐1)
$0.00
$5.00
$0.00
$2.50
$0.00
$0.75
B; Includes analysis of risk, leakage, social impacts,
regional baselines
Conversion of inventory to carbon baseline
Includes historic calculation of baselines
Lookup Tables (acre‐1)
$0.00
$3.00
$0.00
$1.10
$0.00
$0.35
B
From sampling (acre‐1)
$0.00
$6.50
$0.00
$2.00
$0.00
$0.45
B
Growth modeling‐ first year(s) storage
Includes calculation of previous vintage credits
Lookup Tables (acre‐1)
$0.00
$1.75
$0.00
$0.30
$0.00
$0.10
B
From sampling (automated) (acre‐1)
$0.00
$1.75
$0.00
$0.30
$0.00
$0.10
B
Calculation of LLWP Carbon (all ytd)
$0.00
$3.00
$0.00
$0.50
$0.00
$0.10
B; Includes retroactive crediting up to allowable
cutoffs
Initial Verification Fees (acre‐1)
$8.00
$12.00
$1.50
$2.60
$0.25
$0.40
B
Ongoing Project Implementation (timber and carbon)
Site Maintenance (acre‐1)
$0.00
$5.00
$0.00
$5.00
$0.00
$5.00
A
Mark/Administer Harvests (acre‐1 harvested)
$5.00
$120.00
$5.00
$110.00
$5.00
$95.00
B
Ongoing Project Implementation (carbon only)
Measurement/Monitoring
Modeling, Lookup Tables (acre‐1)
$0.00
$0.84
$0.00
$0.13
$0.00
$0.03
B
Field Sampling/Monitoring (event ‐1 acre‐1)
$9.60
$26.85
$1.33
$3.15
$0.13
$0.36
D
Annual Verification Report (event‐1 acre‐1)
$6.00
$8.00
$1.00
$1.50
$0.12
$0.18
B
Growth Modeling‐annual storage
Lookup Tables (acre‐1)
$0.00
$1.50
$0.00
$0.20
$0.00
$0.05
B
From sampling (automated) (acre‐1)
$0.00
$1.50
$0.00
$0.20
$0.00
$0.05
B
Calculation of LLWP Carbon (acre‐1)
$0.00
$0.75
$0.00
$0.50
$0.00
$0.15
B
Aggregation Fee (net project revenue‐1)
10.00%
12.00%
10.00%
10.00%
8.00%
10.00%
B; Sometimes include verification for smaller
landowners
A. South Carolina SFI Committee 2003
B. Pers. comm., M. Smith, Forecon, Inc., January 6, 2009.
C. Brown and Kadyszewski 2005.
D. Mooney et al. 2004.
Transaction costs and forest management carbon offset potential All offset projects, regardless of the protocol under which they are operating, are assessed carbon
project development fees, which cover consulting fees, scoping fees, and planning, project
documentation, and process determination expenses. These are assumed to be a “cost of doing
business.” Carbon credits are sold to market in the year that they are generated, regardless of
verification interval. Some protocols (e.g., VCS) allow sale of credits only following verification events.
While this assumption does not impact the total amount of carbon generated by a particular project, it
could artificially inflate the NPV of the project slightly, as expected sales are shifted forward in time.
Finally, it is assumed that aggregators are not required for the projects discussed here, so no
aggregation fee is assessed unless otherwise noted.6
1605b. All costs are calculated based on the requirements necessary to achieve a “B” measurement
rating. In the case of forest projects, this means that sequestration may be quantified by either models
or lookup tables adapted to local conditions and management practices. Lookup tables are assumed to
be used here.7 No estimation is made of historical long‐lived wood product (LLWP) sequestration (the
amount of carbon stored in products produced prior to project inception).
GFC. An approved forester is required to assemble and register carbon data; these costs are included as
part of “initial verification fees” at project inception. The assistance of an approved forester is also
required in years where harvests or natural disturbances occur. Here, these costs are represented by the
assessment of “annual verification report” expenses in the year of harvest. Sequestration may be
quantified by either models/inventory‐derived direct measurement or lookup tables; lookup tables are
assumed to be used here. Annual reporting of sequestration is required, the costs of which are assumed
to be included in other measurement and monitoring expenses. Calculation of historical LLWP is not
conducted. A one‐time registration fee is required, with projects less than 500 acres paying $100,
projects between 500 and 5,000 acres paying $250, and projects greater than 5,000 acres paying $500.
VCS. Analysis of project risk, leakage, and social impacts are captured in the “pre‐project” expenses. A
double verification is required at project inception, the costs of which are assumed to be approximated
through the application of both “initial verification fees” and “annual verification report” in year 1 of the
project. Individual verification events occur at five‐year intervals thereafter. Initial baseline and all
subsequent sequestration are assumed to be quantified through site‐specific sampling. A registration
fee of €0.04 is assessed to all registered credits; a conversion rate of $1.2874 per Euro is used.8
CCX. Certification is required for participation, the costs of which are not included here. Carbon is
quantified through a model‐based accounting scheme that is derived from initial inventories. Initial
verification is required, as is an annual desk audit. The costs of a desk audit are assumed to be captured
in annual measurement and monitoring costs. Field verifications are conducted at the outset of a
particular project, at the conclusion of the project, and intermittently as recommended by the CCX
Forestry Committee.
A minimum of 10% of enrolled lands are subject to field verification in any given
year, therefore the cost of verification is assessed to this particular project at inception and again at 10‐
6 In actuality, an aggregator may not be necessary for a 10,000 ha project, but will likely be required for the smaller
100 ha project. The effect of aggregation on project transaction costs is explored below.
7 Parameterization of models to specific site conditions and management practices (if necessary) is assumed to be
included as part of “carbon project documentation” expenses at project inception.
8 USD/Euro Conversion citing U.S. Federal Reserve Statistical Release for the week of February 9, 2009. Retrieved
February 13, 2009, from http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h10/.
Climate Change Policy Partnership
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Transaction costs and forest management carbon offset potential year intervals. Registration and trading fees of $0.15 and $0.05 per metric ton CO2e, respectively, are
assessed. CCX membership fees are not assessed here.
CAR.9 A perpetual easement is required for project participation, the costs and potential tax benefits of
which are not included here. Assessment of on‐site activity‐shifting leakage is required at project
initiation, the costs of which are assumed to be captured in “pre‐project” expenses. Baseline is
quantified through models based on empirically derived project data. Project sequestration is quantified
through an initial inventory and subsequent direct sampling of required pools. Sequestration is reported
on an annual basis, but reported sequestration is not eligible for crediting until certified by a third‐party
verifier. Third‐party verifiers must conduct field assessments at least every 6 years and review annual
monitoring reports in the interim. The costs of field verification are therefore assessed at 6‐year
intervals, whereas the costs of annual review are assumed to be captured in annual measurement and
monitoring expenses. A one‐time project registration fee of $500 is assessed, as is an annual $500
registry maintenance fee. Credit registration and trading fees of $0.15 and $0.06 per metric ton CO2e,
respectively, are also assessed.
2.2.2. Calculation of metrics
The NPV of projects operating under each protocol, as well as the NPV of the BAU, timber‐only
alternative, are calculated pursuant to the methodology described in Box 1 of Galik et al. 2008.10 In
addition to the costs listed therein, however, the present analysis also includes the transaction costs
listed in Table 1, applied to each protocol as described above. A discount rate of
r=0.05 is used in Galik
et al. (2008), but both
r=0.05 and
r=0.06 are considered in this analysis.11 A break‐even carbon price is
calculated, again following the methodology outlined in Box 1 of Galik et al. 2008. Timber prices are
assumed to be $38.63/green U.S. ton for softwood sawtimber, $24.18/green U.S. ton for hardwood saw,
$7.44/green U.S. ton for softwood pulpwood, and $7.74/green U.S. ton for hardwood pulp (derived
from Forest2Market 2008). In this manner, we assess the direct costs and benefits of offset project
implementation, as well as the opportunity costs of delaying timber harvest from the default, BAU
scenario. We also consider the average per‐hectare transaction costs for each protocol. This is done by
averaging annual transaction costs assessed to each protocol and then dividing by the total project size.
Note that the per‐hectare transaction cost metric does not include a time component; there is no
discounting of future costs relative to present costs.
Expanding the analysis to include additional forest types, we calculate the NPV for transaction costs for
all pools under each protocol, as well as the NPV of the difference between actual creditable carbon
generation under each protocol and a hypothetical maximum (1605(b)). Combined, these values provide
insight into the relative magnitude of costs attributable to project implementation (i.e., transaction
costs) versus accounting structure (i.e., baselines, leakage deductions, and buffer set‐asides). Although
project size will impact the relative importance of transaction costs versus carbon accounting on total
project revenue, only results from 1,000‐hectare projects are presented here.
9 A revised forest management protocol is currently under development; a final version of the updated protocol
was not available at the time of this analysis. Early drafts of the protocol suggest significant changes to the
methodology, however.
10 Because the timber prices quoted here are applicable to a limited number of forest types, this particular metric
is only considered for the Calhoun Experimental Forest data set and SE loblolly‐shortleaf pine.
11 Higher rates may be more appropriate for the types of projects considered here, while a 5% rate allows for
comparison with earlier published results.
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Transaction costs and forest management carbon offset potential Finally, we conduct an analysis of the per‐metric ton CO2e transaction costs for 46 forest types under
multiple scenarios and project sizes. We first calculate transaction costs as described above, then divide
by the discounted stream of carbon sequestration generated by the project under each protocol. A
discount rate of
r=0.06 is used to determine the present value of carbon sequestration benefits. Next,
point estimates of transaction costs per ton are generated for projects by region, forest type, tract size,
protocol, and rotation length extension (Table 2). To assess the marginal impact of each categorical
variable on total transaction costs per unit of sequestered carbon, data are pooled, and a multivariate
linear regression is estimated. Regression analysis provides a tractable and accepted procedure for
relaying such variation in a simple functional form. The
following linear specification is applied, where
the natural log of transaction costs is the depend
t
en variable:
I J K L log(
TC )= α + Σ
βi REGIONi + Σ
λj TYPEj +Σ
μk PROTOCOLk + Σ
σl TRACTl +
γ ROTATION + ε i=1 j=1 k=1 l=1 Indicator variables are used to reference each ith region, jth forest type, kth protocol, and lth tract size. The
length of rotation extension from each forest type’s default rotation is represented by a continuous
variable ranging from 1 to 25. As in previous studies of transaction costs (Antinori and Sathaye 2007),
the log transformation of total transaction costs is taken for purposes of model scaling.
Table 2. Components included in the regional transaction cost analysis.
Forest Types
Regions
Protocols
Tract Sizes
Rotation Extension
Alder‐Maple
Northeast (NE)
1605b
100 ha
1‐25 years
Aspen‐Birch
Northern Lake States (NLS)
GFC
1,000 ha
Douglas Fir
Northern Plain States (NPS)
CCX
10,000 ha
Elm‐Ash‐Cottonwood
Pacific Northwest‐East (PNWE)
CAR
Fir‐Spruce‐Mtn Hemlock
Pacific Northwest‐West (PNWW)
VCS
Hemlock‐Sitka Spruce
Pacific Southwest (PSW)
Loblolly‐Shortleaf Pine
Rocky Mountain‐North (RMN)
Lodgepole Pine
Rocky Mountain‐South (RMS)
Longleaf‐Slash Pine
South Central (SC)
Maple‐Beech‐Birch
Southeast (SE)
Mixed Conifer
Oak‐Gum‐Cypress
Oak‐Hickory
Oak‐Pine
Ponderosa Pine
Spruce‐Balsam Fir
Spruce‐Fir
Western Oak
White‐Red‐Jack Pine
3. Results and Discussion The break‐even carbon prices estimated in Galik et al. 2008 are approximately 4%–12% lower depending
on protocol than calculated here for a comparable 100‐hectare project (Figure 1).12 This is not
surprising, as the present analysis includes more cost components. The impact of adding these other
transaction cost components is dampened somewhat by the addition of additional costs to the BAU,
non‐project alternative as well (e.g., planting, site preparation, and management plan costs).
12 Further description of the differences between protocols and their potential impacts on creditable carbon (and
by extension break‐even price) can be found in Galik et al. 2008.
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Transaction costs and forest management carbon offset potential Figure 1. Break‐even carbon price by protocol ($/metric ton CO2e) for
r=0.05, considering (a) only required pools
and (b) all pools for a doubling of rotation length for the Calhoun Experimental Forest data set (25 to 50 years).
Values calculated in Galik et al. 2008 are included as a reference. Though varying by protocol, break‐even prices
are approximately 30% higher with
r=0.06 for all tract sizes.
Figure 1 also shows that the break‐even carbon price declines slightly as project size increases. Putting
these numbers in context, we see that a project similar to the one evaluated here and operating under
an accounting structure similar to 1605(b) could be viable in the early years of a domestic cap‐and‐trade
program.13 Similar projects operating under accounting systems approximating CAR, CCX, or VCS may
not be viable until later years of the program.14,15 It is important to note, however, that the
management transition modeled in Figure 1, a shift from 25‐ to 50‐year rotations, represents somewhat
of an extreme example. More subtle shifts in rotations (e.g., 5‐ or 10‐year extensions) may require
significantly lower break‐even prices.16
Continuing to focus solely on the Calhoun data set, the impact of project size on mean per‐hectare
transaction costs is easily seen (Figure 2). It is interesting to note the relative sensitivities of the different
protocols to project size. Note especially the relative expenses for CCX and CAR at the 10,000‐hectare
project sizes. Under CCX, per‐credit registration and trading fees are large drivers of the increased costs.
Under CAR, costs are driven by credit and registration fees in addition to substantial project initiation
and annual maintenance fees.
13 A recent EPA analysis of H.R. 2454, the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, estimates allowance
prices of $13 to $16 per metric ton CO2e for years 2015 to 2020 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2009).
14 EPA estimates year‐2030 allowance prices under H.R. 2454 to be $26 to $31 per metric ton CO2e, depending on
scenario (Ibid.). Prices exceeding $40 may not be reached until even later in program implementation.
15 The break‐even carbon price as it relates to a federal market would obviously only be relevant for projects
operating under methodologies that meet requirements for market participation.
16 Although differences in data source and pools included makes direct comparison with the Calhoun Experimental
Forest data set difficult, a shift from 25‐ to 35‐year rotations in 100 ha of high productivity, high management
intensity SE loblolly‐shortleaf pine yields break‐even prices under a 5% discount rate that are between 9% and 28%
of that estimated in Galik et al. 2008, depending on protocol. Break‐even prices are higher under a 6% discount
rate, but are still generally below comparable values reported in Galik et al. 2008.
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