Transactional, Transformational, or Laissez-Faire Leadership: An assessment of College of Agriculture Academic Program Leaders (Deans) Leadership Styles

Proceedings of the 2007 AAAE Research Conference, Volume 34
Transactional, Transformational, or Laissez-Faire Leadership: An assessment of College of
Agriculture Academic Program Leaders (Deans) Leadership Styles

David W. Jones
North Carolina State University

Rick D. Rudd
Virginia Tech University

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine if the leadership style of academic program leaders
(deans) of Colleges of Agriculture at land-grant institutions is transactional, transformational or
laissez-faire. Academic program leaders were defined as individuals listed by the National
Association of State University and Land-Grant Colleges as the Dean of Academic Programs in
School and Colleges of Agricultural and Life Sciences or Agriculture and Natural Resources.
These academic program leaders were assessed using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ) developed by Bass and Avolio (2000) to determine their leadership style as well as
elements of transactional and transformational leadership. Findings of this study imply that
academic program leaders in colleges of agriculture at land-grant institutions have a more
transformational leadership style. Additionally, males in this research use transformational
leadership behaviors as well as transactional leadership behaviors more often than their female
counterparts. Findings of this research show males scoring slightly higher then females in all
leadership scale scores. Leadership scale scores included Contingent Reward, Intellectual
Stimulation, Management-by-Exception (passive), Management-by-Exception (active), Idealized
Influence (behavior), Idealized Influence (attributed), Individualized Consideration, and
Inspirational Motivation. This research showed ethnicity had no significant effect on leadership
behaviors.

Introduction and Theoretical Framework

Universities and colleges in the United States are undergoing a time of change. The
quality of their future depends on how well they respond to evolving realities in the larger world
beyond their walls (Abelson, 1997). How college of agricultural and life sciences academic
program leaders lead their colleges and faculty through the change and their style of leadership
could ensure the success of their higher education institutions. The leadership of colleges will be
a determining factor of whether the college will be able to successfully and effectively manage
the change. The academic program leaders (deans) of colleges of agricultural and life sciences
have been designated as the individuals responsible for guiding their organization during this
time of change.

Leaders can not solve problems alone. In today's complex world problems call for the
combined expertise of multiple resources and assistants. For these reasons, strong emphasis is
placed on promoting teamwork and strong leadership. Due to the complex challenges created by
globalization and technological advances, it is imperative for organizations to solve problems
efficiently and make the most of available resources. Leaders must recognize the creativeness of
all the organization's members across multiple disciplines. Suggestions and ideas need to be

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implemented quickly and efficiently. Leaders must promote collaboration and teamwork. In
order to facilitate change, leaders must respect each other's expertise and find ways to identify
and solve complex problems and challenges.

To lead people through this process in an orderly manner, leaders need to become process
leaders rather than relying solely on their content expertise. Effective leaders recognize they can
not solve all their critical challenges alone and that assistance will lie within the faculty.
Effective leaders will need to include their subordinates and employees, their peers, and perhaps
even their superiors. In order to use the thinking skills of other people, leaders will have to
engage them in the process of thinking innovatively and creatively, rather than telling them what
to do. When leaders concentrate on the process of finding and solving important problems, they
concentrate on the process.

Effective leadership requires leading others to think innovatively and promoting the
continual discovery of new solutions. Getting people to work toward a common goal is not easy.
The leader must know when and how to synchronize the thinking of others. People tend to lack
skills in problem-solving and divergent thinking, as well as the ability to create innovative
solutions to complex problems. Research shows involving people in using their creativity is
itself motivating. By encouraging people to think for themselves, the leader creates intrinsic
motivation in their followers
Good leadership fosters change that is both transformative and sustainable. It can be
concerned with moral or organizational matters. It can define the college’s role in the
world beyond its walls, or it can determine their internal dynamics of the institution.
Most importantly, it requires a worthy goal-vision, if you will--but it also requires
persistence. (Ekman, 2003)
The dean’s role may be multifaceted from college to college or university to university,
yet there is one role that all deans must face: dealing with “change.” While undergoing change,
researchers have found that followers have to be empowered so that they are willing to work for
new change. Research suggests that leaders need to have qualities that facilitate followers to
transform from one situation to another, that is transformational leadership (Shamir et al., 1993;
Yukl, 1999). Transformational leadership may motivate people to go beyond their own self-
interest and to pursue goals and values of the collective group. Effective leadership is central to
change and, in particular, to the ability to produce “constructive or adaptive change” as leaders
“risk disorder and instability as they seek out opportunities for change” (Bedeian & Hunt, 2005).
Leadership requires the development of a vision, communication of that vision, and the ability to
set purpose or direction (Bedeian & Hunt, 2005).

Transformational leadership involves the ability to inspire and motivate followers.
Research findings support the process-based approach to leadership. This approach posits that a
person is influenced by activating internal motivators. A process-based view of leadership
involves the ability to motivate followers to act, recognizing that the ability to successfully
influence others is the essence of leadership (Yukl, 1999). The successful, effective leader has
the ability to have his or her vision accepted, as well as to motivate followers to work toward a
common end (Chemers, 2001). Effective leadership is enhanced when leaders can inspire their
followers to accept change by communicating a compelling vision of the future and motivating
willingness to work in the new manner.

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It is important to provide followers opportunities to participate by having the chance to
present their thoughts and opinions. These thoughts and opinions can then be considered and
incorporated into management decisions. Followers are more willing to accept change when
they have input in the change process.

House's (1971) Path-goal Theory sees the successful leader as someone who engages
followers by reconciling their personal goals with those of the group. Leadership is not simply a
matter of leaders or of leaders and followers. Leadership is the relationship between leaders and
followers within a social group (Haslam, 2001). Effective leadership is about supplying a vision,
creating social power, and directing that power so an individual can realize that vision.

Goal attainment is an issue leadership studies also address. Within the group, the leader
influences or leads in the setting of direction or the attainment of goals. Therefore, leadership
involves directing a group toward some end point or accomplishing some task. This direction
includes defining and articulating a direction according to external and environmental
contingencies for the leader’s followers (Zaccaro & Banks, 2001). Transformational leadership
theory includes the idea of inspirational motivation as one way of encouraging followers to
envision attractive future states (Bass, 1998).

Purpose and Objective

The purpose of this study was to determine if academic program leaders in colleges of
agriculture at land-grant institutions use transactional, transformational and/or laissez-faire
leadership styles in performing their duties. An additional objective of this study was to
determine if there is a difference in leadership styles of academic program leaders according to
gender. Finally, this study sought to determine if there was a difference in leadership styles of
academic program leaders according to their ethnicity.

Population

The population for this study was academic program leaders of colleges of agricultural
and life sciences at land-grant universities. Academic program leaders of Colleges of
Agricultural and Life Sciences were determined by using the National Association of State
Universities and Land-Grant Colleges (NASULGC) 2005 directory. The colleges of Agricultural
and Life Science academic program leaders included in this study represented both 1862 and
1890 land-grant universities. Each participant was contacted because he or she held the title of
“Professional Academic Program Leader,” “Dean,” or a similar title. The directory identified 72
individuals as having the title or fulfilling the role of the academic program leader. Fifty-six
individuals from the 1862 and 1890 land-grant colleges responded to the research for a 78%
response rate. Two follow-ups over a two-month period for institutions that did not respond
were conducted. Non-respondents were contacted by telephone, email, and fax.






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Instrumentation

In order to accomplish the research objectives, Dillman’s (2000) Internet and Interactive
Voice Response Surveys Design Methodology was followed. A packet containing the research
instrument was mailed to each participant. Leadership styles and leadership behaviors of the
study’s participants were determined by scoring each participant’s response to the Multifactor
Leadership Questionnaire. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is based on the
Full Range Leadership Model developed by Bass and Avolio (2000). The survey is a short and
comprehensive assessment with 45 items that measure a full range of leadership behaviors. The
MLQ has been repeatedly validated by leadership experts. The MLQ is strongly predictive of
leader performance (Bass, 1997). The MLQ measures leadership styles, and designates
behaviors ranging from transactional leadership to transformational leadership, including laissez-
faire leadership. The reliability of the MLQ, as reported by Bass and Avolio for each leadership
factor, ranges from .74 to .91.

The MLQ measures individual leadership styles as being transformational, transactional,
and laissez-faire as well as scales of leadership. The MLQ was utilized to measure elements or
scales of transformational and transactional leadership of the academic program leader. The
MLQ scale scores are measures of characteristics, or behaviors of leaders. These characteristics
include: Individualized Consideration; Intellectual Stimulation; Inspirational Motivation;
Idealized Influence (attributed); and Idealized Influence (behavior) associated with
Transformational Leadership; Contingent Reward; and Management by Exception (active);
associated with Transactional Leadership; Management-by-Exception (passive); and laissez-
faire; an inactive form of leadership characterized by a reluctance to become actively involved
and a view that the best leadership is to disassociate from the action known as laissez-faire
leadership. Transformational leaders exhibit high scores in the scales of idealized influence
(attributed), idealized influence (behavior), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and
individualized consideration.

Transformational leadership encourages followers to accomplish more than what would
normally be expected of them. They become motivated to transcend their own self-interests for
the good of the group or organization (Northouse 2001, Bass & Avolio, 1990). The following
seven leadership scale scores measured by the MLQ represent transformational, transactional
and/or laissez-faire leadership:

1. Individualized Consideration - associated with transformational leadership
2. Intellectual Stimulation - associated with transformational leadership
3. Inspirational Motivation - associated with transformational leadership
4. Idealized Influence - associated with transformational leadership
5. Contingent Reward - associated with transactional leadership
6. Management-by-Exception – associated with transactional leadership, a method of leadership
associated with either solving or preventing problems
7. Laissez-faire - an inactive form of leadership characterized by a reluctance to become
actively involved and a view that the best leadership is to disassociate from the action


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The manner in which followers react to the leader and his/her behavior is defined by the
leaders idealized influence score. Idealized influence leaders have high moral and ethical values
and are able to provide their followers with a sense of vision and mission. Followers deeply
respect the idealized influence leader (Northouse, 2001).

Inspirational motivation is shown in leaders when they inspire and motivate followers to
demonstrate commitment to the shared vision of the group or team. The inspirational
motivational leader engages in clearly communicating high expectations to followers and
increases team spirit and enthusiasm (Northouse, 2001).

Intellectual stimulation is demonstrated by the transformational leader when they support
followers to be creative and innovative, to try new approaches, and challenge their own beliefs
and values. This type of leader promotes problem solving to find creative solutions to the task at
hand (Northouse, 2001).

Individualized consideration is shown by the transformational leader by creating a
supportive climate, listening to followers, and acts as a coach and mentor. The leader pays
attention to individual differences and treats individual employees in a caring way. Leaders also
help individuals achieve goals and grow personally. This type of leader also uses delegation to
get followers to grow through personal challenges (Northouse, 2001).

Contingent Reward and Management-by-Exception (active) make up transactional
leadership style. Contingent Reward is how the leader and followers exchange specific rewards
for outcomes or results. Goals and objectives are agreed upon by both the leader and followers
and the achievement is rewarded or punished. The MLQ measures a leader’s degree of
possessing Contingent Reward leadership attributes which are demonstrated by leaders that
engage in a constructive path to goal transaction and exchange rewards for performance. These
leaders clarify expectations, exchange promises and resources, arrange mutually satisfactory
agreements, negotiate for resources, exchange assistance for effort, and provide commendations
for successful follower performance. Management-by-Exception (active) is when a leader makes
corrective criticisms or uses negative reinforcement. This leadership behavior monitors
followers closely so they can point out mistakes and errors. Leaders with Management-by-
Exception with “active” behaviors have characteristics of monitoring followers' performances
and taking corrective action if deviations from the set standards occur. These leaders enforce
rules to avoid mistakes.

Laissez-faire leadership has the scales of Management-by-Exception (passive) and
laissez-faire leadership. In this leadership style, the leader uses Management-by-Exception
(passive), which is only intervening when goals have not been met or a problem arises. The
Management-by-Exception leader with a “passive” behavior would not intervene until problems
become serious. The Management-by-Exception leader (passive) waits to take action until
mistakes are brought to his or her attention. Laissez-faire behaviors are ones that delay decisions
and give up responsibility. Laissez-faire leaders offer no feedback or support to the follower.
Laissez-faire leadership is a “hands-off” approach to leadership (Northouse, 2001). Laissez-faire
leadership is also termed a non-leadership style. The laissez-faire leader avoids accepting
responsibilities, is absent when needed, fails to follow up on requests for assistance, and resists

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expressing his or her views on important issues. The laissez-faire leader gives the majority of
control in the decision-making process to the followers. Laissez-faire leadership assumes that
followers are intrinsically motivated and should be left alone to accomplish tasks and goals. The
laissez-faire leader does not provide direction or guidance.

Findings

Each of the nine leadership scales measured by the MLQ as well as the transformational,
transactional, and/or laissez-faire leadership style scores are presented in Table 1. Leadership
scale scores have a range possibility of 0 to 4. A score of 0 meant the behavior was not used at
all while a 4 was a behavior or style used frequently, if not always. A score of 0-1 represents a
behavior or style used minimally or never. A score of 1-2 demonstrate behaviors used once in a
while to sometimes. A MLQ score between 2 and 3 demonstrates behaviors or traits used fairly
often. Leadership behaviors or styles used frequently, if not always scored between 3 and 4. Of
the nine scale scores, Inspirational Motivation received the highest mean score (M=3.44,
SD=.43), and laissez-faire scale scores received the lowest mean score (M=.59, SD=.44).

Leadership style scores also had a range of 0 to 4. The range of style scores for the
respondents for transformational leadership was 2.40 to 3.95. Transactional leadership style
scores ranged from 1.38 to 3.13. The laissez-faire leadership style had a range of .125 to 1.625.
Transformational leadership scores reported by the participants were the highest of the leadership
style scores (M=3.28, SD=.36), while laissez-faire leadership style was reported as having the
lowest score (M=.88, SD=.37). Participants reported a score for transactional leadership style of
(M=2.24, SD=.46). Table 2 presents the scores for the three leadership style scores;
transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership.

Table 1
Leadership Scale Scores
Leadership Scale
n
M
SD
Contingent Reward
56
3.13
.51
Intellectual Stimulation
56
3.26
.52
Management-by-Exception (Passive)
56
1.17
.58
Management-by-Exception (Active)
56
1.37
.65
Laissez-faire Leadership Scale
56
.59
.44
Idealized Influence (Behavior)
56
3.24
.45
Idealized Influence (Attributed)
56
3.18
.46
Individualized Consideration
56
3.32
.44
Inspirational Motivation
56
3.44
.43

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Table 2
Leadership Style Scores
Leadership Style
n
M
SD
Transformational Leadership Style
56
3.28
.36
Transactional Leadership Style
56
2.24
.46
Laissez-faire Leadership Style
56
.88
.37

Leadership Style and Gender
There were fewer female respondents (n=13) than there were male (n=43). Table 3
shows the leadership style scores by gender. No significant correlations were found between
leadership style and gender. Leadership style scores had a possible range of 0 to 4. Females
scored lower than males in all leadership style areas including laissez-faire leadership.

Table 3
Leadership Style Scores by Gender
Construct Gender
n M SD
MLQ – Transformational
Female
13
3.20
.38
Male
43
3.31
.36
MLQ – Transactional
Female
13
2.20
.43
Male
43
2.26
.48
MLQ – Laissez-faire
Female
13
.84
.30

Male 43 .90
.38

Leadership Style and Ethnicity
Most of the participants reported their ethnicity as White (n=43). There were four
American Indians or Alaska Natives (n=4). Two participants responded in the Asian category
(n=2), while six individuals responded in the Black or African American category (n=6). One
participant responded in the Hispanic or Latino category (n=1). The mean of transformational
leadership styles in the Whites category was 3.27 (n=43), the transactional leadership style had a
mean of 2.22, while the laissez-faire leadership style had a mean of .90. The transformational
leadership style of Non-Whites in this study had a mean score of 3.33 with a standard deviation
of .34. Non-Whites demonstrated transactional leadership behaviors or styles with a MLQ score
of 2.32 and standard deviation of .44. The mean score for Non-White laissez-faire leadership
style and behaviors was .84 with a standard deviation of .29. When examining the leadership
style scores by ethnicity, no significant differences were found. Leadership style by ethnicity is
shown in Table 4.





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Table 4
Leadership Style Scores by Ethnicity
Construct Ethnicity
n M SD
MLQ – Transformational
White
43
3.27
.37
Non-Whites
13
3.33
.34
MLQ – Transactional
White
43
2.22
.30
Non-Whites
13
2.32
.44
MLQ – Laissez-faire
White
43
.90
.38
Non-Whites
13
.84
.29

The purpose of this study was to determine if the leadership style of academic program
leaders was transformational, transactional and/or laissez-faire. Current academic program
leaders appear to have a more transformational leadership style, as demonstrated by a mean score
in transformational leadership (M=3.28), while exhibiting some characteristics of transactional
leadership (M=2.24). Laissez-faire leadership (non-leadership) was minimally exhibited
(M=.88), showing it is not a preferred leadership style. These findings are a positive sign for
colleges and universities. The literature suggests the most effective and successful leaders use
transformational leadership most of the time followed by some transactional leadership with a
minimum use of laissez-faire leadership (Tichny & Devanna, 1990).

The findings of the research show males using specific leadership styles and behaviors
more often than their female counterparts. Males had a mean of 3.31, and females had a mean of
3.20 in transformational leadership. Males had a mean of 2.26, and females had a mean of 2.20
in transactional leadership. In laissez-faire leadership style males had mean of .90, and females
had a mean of .84. These research findings for transformational leadership behavior oppose
earlier research suggesting transformational leadership is a more feminine behavior,
demonstrated more often by females. Transactional leadership is characteristically a male
leadership style. The findings of this study imply academic program leaders, both male and
female, are using transformational leadership styles more often than transactional or laissez-faire
leadership behaviors. This is a positive reflection of the current academic program leaders
because the literature states transformational leadership behaviors are more successful for
attaining and fulfilling goals (Tichny & Devanna, 1990).

In terms of leadership style and ethnicity, it was found that the Non-White population
exhibited higher transformational leadership style behaviors (M=3.33) then Whites (M=3.27).
Similar to transformational leadership style, the Non-White population exhibited higher
transactional leadership style behaviors (M=2.32), then Whites (M=2.22) exhibited. Laissez-
faire leadership was the least demonstrated leadership style, most often by Whites (M=.901).
The Non-White population had a mean score of .84 for laissez-faire leadership behaviors.

When relationships between gender, ethnicity, and leadership style were examined, no
significant relationships could be found. This finding concurs with other studies examining
demographic variables on similar populations (Wolverton et al., 2001; Moore, 2003; Stedman,
2004).



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Conclusions

The findings of the current study found academic program leaders in colleges of
agricultural and life sciences tend to use transformational leadership more often than
transactional or laissez-faire leadership. This is an important finding for the higher education
community as well as agricultural education. Eagly et al. (2003) reported effective-successful
leaders use transformational leadership behaviors more often than transactional or laissez-faire
leadership. Bass (1990) stated that transformational leadership is the prototype of leadership that
people have in mind when they describe their ideal leader. Bass also stated transformational
leaders are more effective and successful. This is good news for land-grant institutions. If these
institutions’ academic program leaders are using transformational leadership more often than
transactional or laissez-faire leadership, the chances for success and the continued viability for
agricultural education at higher education institutions is promising.

Further findings of this study revealed that academic program leaders engage in
transformational leadership behaviors more often then transactional behaviors regardless of their
gender or ethnicity. Using the theory of transformational leadership as the foundation for this
study it is to expected that academic program leaders (deans) would use both leadership styles,
transactional as well as transformational as was found in this study. Academic program leaders
are using both transactional and transformational leadership in the completion of their jobs. It is
encouraging that academic program leaders are using transformational leadership.

Since gender and ethnicity did not significantly influence the leadership style or
behaviors of the academic program leaders in regards to their being transactional,
transformational or laissez-faire it becomes evident that higher education institutions should
continue to recruit diverse leaders with diverse backgrounds.

It is important to note that this study looked at specific attributes of leaders (specifically
gender and ethnicity) and their leadership styles and behaviors. Further research needs to be
conducted to determine if additional factors relate to the development of their leadership style.

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