Twisting Arms: Figurative Language Effects in Persuasive Discourse

Twisting Arms: Figurative Language Effects in Persuasive Discourse
Roger Kreuz, Aaron Ashley, and Kathryn Bartlett
The University of Memphis
Introduction
Method: Subjects
Results
A meta-analysis of the persuasiveness of metaphors by
This study was designed to assess the effects of argument
Participants were 212 undergraduates at the University of
Sopory and Dillard (2002) suggests that fewer, rather than
A 2 (argument strength) x 2 (sports attitude) x 4 (language
strength and various forms of figurative language in persuasive
Memphis participating for course credit.
more metaphors in a persuasive communication may lead to
type) ANCOVA was performed. (The covariate was the pre-
discourse.
greater attitude change.
message attitude toward a thesis requirement). There was a
Method: Materials
significant effect of argument strength: strong editorials
The study is a replication and extension of Ottati, Rhoads, and
yielded more favorable attitudes than weak editorials.
Given that the density of figurative language was relatively
Each participant read one of eight versions of the editorial,
Graesser (1999), who tested the motivational resonance model.
high in the editorials, the effect of such language use may
which was approximately 975 words in length.
8
The model predicts that metaphors should increase systematic
have been diminished (this may be particularly true in the
Strong
processing of arguments if the metaphors used are of interest
case of rhetorical questions, in which the argument strength
Weak
7.5
to the audience.
Strong and weak versions with literal or metaphorical
was actually the reverse of the other conditions).
expressions were taken from Ottati et al.
7
requirement
The study assessed the persuasiveness of literal language
Howard (1990) found that rhetorical questions functioned
thesis
6.5
versus metaphors in an editorial advocating the institution of a
In addition, strong and weak versions containing idiomatic
best when used to facilitate judgments at the end of an
senior
senior thesis requirement (adapted from Petty & Cacioppo,
expressions and rhetorical questions were created. Each
argument, as opposed to the beginning or within the message,
6
1986). Ottati et al. used sports metaphors and found that, for
version had 23 critical phrases that varied across condition.
as in the present study.
toward
participants who enjoy sports, the metaphors were more
Examples appear below:
5.5
persuasive than for those who did not enjoy sports. These
Attitude
Finally, none of the critical phrases were used to actually
results support the predictions of the motivational resonance
Weak argument excerpt, literal condition
5

introduce or summarize the arguments, which, according to
model.
Literal
Metaphor
Idiom
Rhetorical Q
The National Scholarship Board recently revealed the results
Sopory and Dillard, are the locations in which metaphors
Language Type
of a study they conducted on the effectiveness of the senior
should have their greatest persuasive effect.
thesis requirement at Duke University. The findings of this
However, there was no effect of language type, which was
The present study extended the Ottati et al. experiments in the
study indicate that the thesis requirement promotes
the same result found by Ottati et al. (comparing literal vs.
following ways:
intellectual ability and persistence.
metaphorical conditions).
The only significant difference between the strong versions
(1) In addition to literal and metaphorical versions of the
Weak argument excerpt, metaphor condition
of the editorials was between the idiom and the rhetorical
Acknowledgements
editorials, the effects of idioms and rhetorical questions were
The National Scholarship Board recently revealed the results
question conditions. There were no differences between the
This research was funded by a grant from the Office of Naval Research
also assessed (see the Methods section). It has been suggested
of a study they conducted on the effectiveness of the senior
weak editorial conditions.
(N00014-00-1-0667) awarded to the first author.
that different forms of figurative language may be processed in
thesis requirement at Duke University. The findings of this
different ways (e.g., Burgess & Chiarello, 1996). Do these
study indicate that the thesis requirement promotes
References
other forms of figurative language lead to attitude change as
intellectual strength and endurance.
Conclusions
well?
Burgess, C., & Chiarello, C. (1996). Neurocognitive mechanisms
underlying metaphor comprehension and other figurative language.
Strong argument excerpt, idiom condition
The main effect of argument strength suggests that the
Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 11, 67-84.
materials were functioning as expected. This is consistent
The prospect of a senior thesis seems to be effective in
Chaiken, S., & Eagly, A. H. (1976). Communication modality as a
with previous research using the same stimuli without
determinant of message persuasiveness and message comprehensibility.
(2) The attitudes of the participants regarding the editorial
challenging students to work harder and faculty to teach more
figurative forms (e.g., Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 605-614.
topic was assessed prior to the presentation of the editorial.
effectively. Motivated students get a jump on the project and
Howard, D. J. (1990). Rhetorical question effects on message
This allowed for a more accurate measure of persuasion.
faculty take them under their wings.
It seems clear that the presence of figurative language did not
processing and persuasion: The role of information availability and the
make the weak arguments more persuasive, suggesting that
elicitation of judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26,
the presence of such language did not facilitate a more
217-239.
Strong argument excerpt,
positive attitude about the topic.
Ottati, V., Rhoads, S., & Graesser, A. C. (1999). The effect of metaphor
(3) The editorials were presented in a written format, which
rhetorical question condition
on processing style in a persuasion task: A motivational resonance model.
should allow the audience to more systematically process the
The prospect of a senior thesis seems to be effective in
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 688-697.
message (Chaiken & Eagly, 1976), as well as providing an
challenging students to work harder and faculty to teach more
One possible reason for the lack of a figurative language
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion:
assessment of the generality of the effects of the motivational
Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. New York: Springer-
effectively. Wouldn’t motivated students quickly become
effect may be due to the density of such language within the
Verlag.
resonance model obtained by Ottati et al.
involved in the project and shouldn’t faculty offer better
editorials.

advice and guidance?
Sopory, P., & Dillard, J. P. (2002). The persuasive effects of metaphor:
A meta-analysis. Human Communication Research, 28, 382-419.

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