Urban Environment and Environmental Health

Urban Environment
and Environmental
Health
The Port Sudan dumpsite.
Improvements in solid waste management
will first and foremost require increased
government investment in disposal facilities.

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SUDAN
POST-CONFLICT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
Urban environment and
Assessment activities
environmental health
Detailed desk study information was available on
urban and environmental health issues, though
statistical data on Southern Sudan was relatively
6.1 Introduction and
scarce. UNEP’s fieldwork included visits to urban
assessment activities
centres of all sizes in twenty states. Particular
attention was paid to the investigation of unplanned
Introduction
settlements, camps, waste management and
sanitation. Three cities – Khartoum, Port Sudan
Urban environment and environmental health
and Juba – were selected for a closer assessment of
issues are some of the most visible symptoms of
urban services and housing.
the challenges facing Sudan. Sprawling slums,
litter and polluted waterways are prevalent in
Available statistics on environmental health and
most urban centres, and health and development
services, which are a combination of government
statistics quantify in some detail the massive
and UN data, tell a sombre story of poverty and
impact of this situation on the quality of life of
underdevelopment. On the national scale, even
the Sudanese population.
these numbers are overly optimistic, as much of
the detailed data has historically been collected
Shelter, potable water, sanitation and waste
in the more developed areas of the northern
management are cross-cutting issues, and
states. On a more positive note, however, the
deficiencies in any of these areas can be categorized
economic development resulting from the oil
as development, health or environmental problems.
boom is completely absent from older statistics,
This chapter focuses on the environmental aspects
so that some areas such as Khartoum state are
of these issues and the associated challenges in
expected to show significant improvement from
development and governance.
2000 onwards.
Introductory field training in Juba for the newly recruited staff of the GOSS Ministry of Environment,
Wildlife Conservation and Tourism
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6 URBAN ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
The capital Khartoum is by far the
In Southern Sudan, the major towns, such as
largest city in Sudan
Wau, consist of a small centre built in colonial
times and a large fringe of informal settlements
The scope of the assessment was considered
Major urban centres
adequate to address but not fully quantify the
issues at the national level. In addition, the
The urban population is concentrated in only a few
statistical evidence collected and presented here
cities. Greater Khartoum is by far the largest: its
should be treated with caution; it is considered
population was 2,918,000 in 1993, but it is estimated
sufficient to present trends but not to form the
to have grown to more than five million in 2006. A
basis for detailed planning.
study using 1993 census data for the northern cities
showed that 64 percent of the total population of the
nine largest urban centres lived in Khartoum.
6.2 Overview of demographics
and major urban centres
Table 7.
Populations of the major cities
in northern Sudan in 1993 [6.1]
Demographics
City
Population
Percentage of total
The majority of Sudan’s population (estimated to
Khartoum
2,918,000
64
be between 35 and 40 million) lives in villages and
Port Sudan
308,616
7
hamlets in rural areas. Exact figures on the rural and
El Obeid
228,139
5
urban populations are not available, but UNEP
Nyala
220,386
5
estimates, from a compendium of incomplete and
Wad Medani
212,501
5
obsolete sources, that approximately 70 percent
Gedaref
185,317
4
live in villages, hamlets or lead a semi-nomadic
Kosti
172,832
4
existence, and 30 percent are town and city
El Fasher
141,600
3
dwellers, or live in displaced persons settlements
El Geneina
127,187
3
[6.1, 6.2].
Total
4,427,578
100
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The busy port of Malakal, on the White Nile. Virtually all of the major urban centres in Sudan are located on rivers
Data on the size of the urban centres in Southern
6.4 Urbanization and urban
Sudan is extremely scarce. The largest towns are the
planning
state capitals of Juba, Wau, and Malakal, and the
town of Yei. A 2005 urban planning study of Juba
Rapid urbanization
estimated the town population at 250,000 [6.3].
The two dominant demographic trends in Sudan
6.3 Overview of urban environ-
are rapid population growth (estimated to be
over 2.6 percent) and even faster urbanization,
ment and environmental
fuelled by population growth and a range of
health issues
compounding factors including:
The UNEP assessment identified a long list of
• drought and desertification eliminating rural
urban and environmental health issues in Sudan,
livelihoods;
but focused on those with the strongest link to
the environment. In this sector, most issues are
• mechanized agriculture schemes taking rural
closely linked, so while the assessment could
land from traditional farming communities;
focus on individual problems, the solutions will
• conflict-related insecurity forcing abandonment
need to be integrated. The issues investigated by
of rural livelihoods; and
UNEP were:
• general flight from rural poverty in search
• rapid urbanization;
of better livelihoods and services, such as
• urban planning;
hospitals and schools in the cities.
• drinking water, sanitation and waterborne
diseases;
Moderately good data is only available for
• solid waste management;
Khartoum (see Case Study 6.1). It shows growth
• air pollution and urban transport;
estimates of over five percent per year from 1973
• urban energy; and
to 1993. Anecdotal evidence and data from studies
• sustainable construction.
conducted between 1993 and 2006 indicate that
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6 URBAN ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
the explosive growth of Khartoum has not ceased
expected to be much higher than this thirty-three
[6.4, 6.5, 6.6]. Given the Khartoum-centred
year average.
economic boom, the Darfur crisis, and the rural
environmental problems of the north, UNEP’s
This explosive urbanization is a severe challenge
forecast for the capital is continued growth, with
which has not been – and still is not – managed
rapid inflows from northern states somewhat
or adequately controlled by regional or local
countered by outflow to Southern Sudan.
authorities. The result is chaotic urban sprawl and
widespread slums, which are in turn associated
Following the signing of the Comprehensive Peace
with a number of health, environmental and
Agreement (CPA) in January 2005, displaced
social problems. UNEP teams observed informal
persons from the north and outside of Sudan
settlements or slums on the outskirts of virtually
have started to return to their homelands in the
every town visited in Sudan.
south. Only very approximate numbers of returns
are available as of the end of 2006, but these are
Urban planning
thought to be in the order of 300,000.
To date, not only has urban planning mostly
The exact percentage of these returnees relocating
been focused on metropolitan Khartoum, but
to southern towns is unknown, but the larger
the plans that have been developed have not
urban centres, such as Juba, Yei, Malakal, Wau
been fully implemented due to under-investment
and Rumbek, are clearly experiencing very rapid
in infrastructure and utilities, and underlying
growth. Available data and estimates for Juba, for
deficiencies in land tenure and the rule of law.
example, show a population increase from 56,000
While the capital has recently seen considerable
in 1973 to 250,000 in 2006, which converts to
investment, its size, high growth rate and historical
a growth of 450 percent, or 14 percent (linear)
lack of planning still constitute major challenges
per year [6.3, 6.7]. Growth rates since 2005 are
(see Case Study 6.1).
Large-scale informal settlements have multiplied in the Khartoum area since the 1980s. Most of these
settlements have very limited access to water, and no sewage or waste management
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CS 6.1
Urban planning and informal settlements in Khartoum
Metropolitan Khartoum, which comprises Khartoum, Khartoum North and Omdurman, has an area of 802.5 km2. It is
located at the point where the White Nile, flowing north from Uganda, meets the Blue Nile, flowing west from Ethiopia.
Founded as a military outpost in 1821, Khartoum soon became established as an important trading centre. It was chosen as
the seat of government in 1823. Within the past century, the city has expanded 250 times in area and 114 times in population.
The population of metropolitan Khartoum is now estimated to be more than five million, and it has a current estimated annual
average growth rate of four percent, making it by far the largest and most rapidly increasing concentration of people in the
country [6.6]. Some 40 percent of Khartoum residents are internally displaced persons (or children of IDPs) [6.17].
The capital is sprawling rather than dense: population density in metropolitan Khartoum was estimated at approximately
163 persons/km² in 2004 [6.4]. This low figure is due to the fact that 92 percent of Khartoum’s dwelling plots contain
one-level developments of 300-500 m² per plot. There are few multi-story residential buildings.
Key statistics for Khartoum are all obsolete and incomplete, but nevertheless illustrate the challenges in urban planning,
transportation and provision of utilities and services.
Four master plans have been established for the development of Khartoum since independence. Most were only partially
implemented, and a new plan is currently in process.
The most significant environmental health problems can be observed on the outskirts of the city, where the majority of
unauthorized settlements are located. These settlements cover vast areas, contain no paved roads and offer negligible
facilities for water, sanitation and solid waste management. The result is very poor sanitation, high disease rates, and
difficulties in accessing basic services.
Khartoum authorities have attempted to address the issue of unauthorized settlements and squatters through a range of
plans, initiatives and new settlement deals. Almost all of these have failed, and over the last ten years, authorities have
turned to removing squatters by force, by bulldozing slum areas with little warning or compensation. Displaced persons
settlements have been particularly vulnerable to this campaign.
At the same time, a sixty-five hectare central business district is currently being developed at the junction between the
Blue and While Nile. The Almogran business district development, which is probably the largest such development in the
region, includes plans for a six-hundred hectare residential estate and an eighteen-hole golf course built partly over the
Sunut Forest Nature Reserve.
In sum, Khartoum’s urban planning and utility provision challenges are considerable. In the absence of major investment
and fundamental reforms in areas such as land tenure, the situation is likely to get significantly worse as the capital’s
population continues to grow.
Table 8.
Key statistics for Khartoum [6.5]
Indicator
Statistic
Annual growth rate
4 %
Number of shanty towns surrounding metropolitan Khartoum (1986)
96
Estimated population of unauthorized settlements
2-3 million
Percentage of central Khartoum covered by water network
71 %
Percentage of Khartoum connected to sewage system
28 %
Percentage of Khartoum using pit latrines or other basic systems
68 %
In Darfur, the cities of El Fasher, Nyala and
experience of Southern Sudan indicates that
El Geneina, as well as other urban centres,
a significant percentage of these ‘temporary’
are severely impacted by the massive influx of
settlements in Darfur will become permanent
displaced persons since the start of the conflict in
additions to the towns.
2003. The majority of the two million displaced
are found on the fringes of urban centres which,
In Southern Sudan, urban planning challenges
in some cases, have increased in population by
are twofold. First, urban populations are swelling
over 200 percent in three years [6.8, 6.9]. The
due to the return of displaced people, and second,
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6 URBAN ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Figure 6.1
Growth of Khartoum 1972-2000
1972
1987
2000
Legend
These maps show land-use
Residential area
changes that have occurerd
in Khartoum over the last
Cultivated area
30 years.
Industrial area
These maps are obtained from
Airport
the classification of Landsat
Sands
images.
Bare land
Classification was performed
by RSA (Remote Sensing
River Nile
Authorities) in 2006.
Islands
Open space
No data
Satellite images
1972: Landsat MSS
1987: Landsat TM
2000: Landsat ETM+
Datum: WGS 84
Projection: UTM Zone 36
Kilometres
0
2
4
6
8
10
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
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some of the towns are inherently badly located:
buildings. The Juba civil works contracts, funded
the Nile swamps and floodplains are home to
partly through the Multi-donor Trust Fund, were
several million people, but are very difficult places
awarded in 2006 and on-site work is in progress.
to develop urban centres in, due to high water
Discussions are currently being held to explore
tables, annual flooding and a lack of building
the financing of works in the other nine state
materials such as sand, gravel, rock and suitable
capitals.
clay. Malakal is a classic example of the constraints
imposed by location (see Case Study 6.2).
In parallel, UNDP has set up an Urban
Management Programme for 2006-2009 to
The Government of Southern Sudan launched a
provide broad policy and technical support. UN
major urban development initiative for the ten
Habitat has also commenced operations, and an
state capitals in 2005. Planned infrastructure
international aid programme funded by USAID
works include water and sanitation, roads
has started to conduct assessments and capacity-
and drainage, power supply and government
building in urban planning for Southern Sudan.
With limited soil absorption capacity and no gradient to allow for drainage, sewage remains
stagnant in Malakal’s town centre, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases
CS 6.2
Malakal: the environmental health challenges of urban development
in the southern clay plains
Malakal (population approximately 200,000) is the capital of Upper Nile state. It is located on a flood plain near the junction
of the White Nile and Sobat river. The town’s location and local geology exacerbate the usual water and sanitation problems
that afflict all of the major towns in Southern Sudan.
Indeed, the town is located on very flat ground consisting of heavy clay soil, and the water table is only 0.5 to 1.5 m below
the surface. As a result, drainage is difficult. In the wet season, the town is frequently flooded for long periods of time.
Because there are no significant rock or gravel deposits in the region, straightforward corrective measures like surface
paving, minor relocations and raising settlements above the flood level are all extremely complex and costly, due to the
need to import bulk materials.
Malakal’s population is rising rapidly as people return from the north and from Ethiopia, and the limited public services are
completely overstretched. There is no effective sewage system, and the open rainfall drains that serve as sewers in most
of the town’s streets commonly overflow in the wet season. Unsurprisingly, Malakal was one of the towns affected by the
cholera epidemic of 2005-2006. Unless the problem of town sewage is addressed through a combination of investment
and urban planning, preventing further outbreaks of waterborne diseases will be problematic.
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6 URBAN ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
6.5 Drinking water, sanitation
last decade. Water access rates are comparable to
and waterborne diseases
poorer countries in sub-Saharan Africa.
Sudan actually has sufficient natural water resources
Access to safe and adequate
in the form of rivers, lakes, seasonal streams and
drinking water
groundwater to supply drinking water for the
Sudan is one of the few countries in the world
population in virtually all areas, except for some
where the percentage of people with access to safe
parts of the northern desert (see Chapter 10).
and adequate drinking water has declined over the
The constraint in supplying adequate and safe
drinking water is principally due to a lack of
extraction and purification infrastructure. Under-
Table 9.
Overview of potable water
investment and poverty are core obstacles for the
statistics in Sudan [6.10, 6.11, 6.12]
supply of water throughout Sudan, and historical and
Indicator
Statistic
current conflicts have exacerbated the problem.
Northern and national figures
Urban populations without access to
40 %
Water availability for agriculture and industry (which
20 litres per day (North, 2005)
can use over twenty times the amount required per
Rural populations without access to
60 %
capita for potable purposes) is much more limited,
20 litres per day (North, 2005)
and constrained by the scale and reliability of the
Khartoum population with improved
93 %
resources rather than just under-investment.
water access (2005)
Blue Nile state population with
24 %
improved water access (2005)
Primary schools without access to
65 %
safe water
Percentage of daily income spent on
Up to 40%
water purchase by the urban poor
Average water consumption per
< 6 litres
person per day from rural water points
Darfur
Average water consumption per
< 7 litres
person per day
Southern Sudan
Rural population without access to
75 %
safe water supplies (2005)
Percentage of the estimated 6,500
65 %
Water carts in Kassala state. Reliable water points
water points currently not functioning
are few and far between in the drier parts of Sudan.
properly
Many people rely on water purchased from vendors
TIONAL
© CARE INTERNA
A major aid-funded water drilling programme
Hand-operated well pumps provide
in Darfur has provided over a million people
a reliable water supply to millions
with access to clean water since 2003
of Sudanese people
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